Lecture notes
2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877
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2J: A Nation Divided, c1845 – 1877 Jan MocksNorth and South in c1845
“In c.1845 the most serious divisions between North and
South were economic.” (25)
1. Important economic divisions + divisions due to westward expansion – significance was limited as
both exacerbated by underlying divisions over slavery- more serious sectional divisions
2. Economies of the North and South diverged in terms of development
Increasingly diverse + capitalistic Northern Market economy- egalitarian vs agrarian slave-based
southern economy- raw agricultural produce – cotton, sugar, tobacco
Northern towns and cities grow - heavily reliant on internal improvements financed through
money from tariffs – e.g. By 1840- 3326miles of canals and 3000miles of railroad- concentrated
in Northeast and New England
o Development of steamboats – by 1850- 700 steamboats on the Mississippi
14% of the North living in towns by 1840 (26% by 1850), 6-10% in the South – between
1830-1860 – most of 5million immigrants to US settled in North – 1/6 Northerners were
foreigners vs 1/30 Southerners
Economic differences fuelled division over role and importance of federal government -
nullification crisis
South wanted low tariffs whilst North need high levels to protect industry
against European imports - south didn’t need to protect (King Cotton)
i. 1828 Tariff of Abominations – 38% on 92% of imported goods
Calhoun- South Carolina Exposition and Protest – criticising protective tariff-
should only be used to raise revenue not artificially boost Northern business
North benefitted disproportionately from tariffs – property of South being
appropriated for benefit of other states – unconstitutional so states can nullify – tariff
ordered not to be collected – Jackson mobilised militia
Southern states with 35% of population only produced 10% of manufacturing output by 1850,
North had 2x railway track as South
However - Differences overstated
Compromise that tariff levels would be progressively reduced rather than abolished
Polk’s electoral campaign 1844- show divisions based on internal improvements weren’t
insurmountable – campaigned for lower tariffs and internal improvements
Upper South needed internal improvements
Economies were inter-dependant despite divergence - shared economic interests- finance +
shipping industries in NY had close links to producers in Virginia – Lords of Loom and Lords of
Lash - South need North’s banks to facilitate loans, shipping companies and insurance companies
, North needed produce as 40% of slave-labour profit was held in NY through fees to insurers,
interest payments, loans, shipping
Most Americans remained farmers – between 1840-1860- food production increased 4x due to
opening up of new land in west and scientific techniques like fertilisation, crop rotation, new
machinery- there were many distinct regions- Eastern southern states like Virginia were very
different to Texas (Western states), only 4 Northern manufacturing industries employed over
50,000 people and the North West remained rural, Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond Virginia
was 4th largest national producer of iron products by 1840
North wasn’t more egalitarian than South- 1860- wealthiest 10% of North had 68% of wealth
while the typical Northerner= self-sufficient farmer with 50-500 acres of land
,1. It might be argued that Westward expansion fuelled more serious divisions
Southern Representatives - dominant federal role– 6 out of 8 presidents southerners
Rapid growth in population- by 1819- northern majority in House of Representatives
o US population doubled every 25 years – 1845- 17million but by 1860- reached 31m
o Between 1815 and 1850- population of west of Appalachians increased 3x as quickly as that
of the original 13 states – by 1850- ½ Americans lived west of Appalachians
South worried about shift of political balance (growth could give Northern majority in Senate ,
North worried westward expansion -shift political balance back to South
South felt they needed to add new states to maintain balance –Missouri Controversy
o Application of Missouri for entry into Union as a slave state provoked clash
Tallmadge- 1819- added anti-slavery amendment– ‘if dissolution of the union must take
place, let it be so’, ‘If Civil War must come, I say let it come’
Texas admission also provoked controversy as Texas could make up 5 states
o Santa Anna 1835- marched into Texas killed all Texan defenders March 1836- Jackson didn’t
send help but Americans went – April 1836- Sam Houston defeated Mexicans
o Northerners feared accretion of southern political influence with its entry – South could
Resultingly have more congressional influence and dilute Northern interests
o Jackson and Van Buren shelved issue to preserve sectional unity – 1836- then became big
issue again Henry Clay vs Polk 1844- Texas admitted by Whig President Tyler 1845
However
Issues resolved- Missouri compromise –maintain balance admission of future states +
mechanism for determining whether states could apply as free/ slave states(36,30) -no slavery in
the Louisiana Purchase Territory
Election of 1844- Polk’s platform- embracing broad vision of manifest destiny and policy of
westward expansion including both Texas and Oregon – capturing young population’s
enthusiasm for expansion- shows divisions were resolved
Created division when perceived to be in interest of 1 section over the other – national
politicians and parties could diffuse division by promoting national interests
1. More divisive than economy and westward expansion was growing division over slavery
Quakers in 1790s condemned slavery as moral evil- Northern states abolished slavery 1787-
Northwest ordinance while South King Cotton throve- 1790 -9000 bales of cotton produced in US
but Eli Whitney cotton gin 1793 revitalised southern agriculture – became profitable again- by
1830s- South producing 2million bales of cotton a year – demand for unskilled labour increased -
Economic divergence +westward expansion entrenched divisions over slavery as rather than
become uneconomical – westward expansion allowed value of slaves to increase- more
profitable institution to the South – principal labour system
o By 1850- 1/3 white southern families owned slaves – 55% worked in cotton, 10% in tobacco,
10% rice, sugar, hemp, 15% as domestic servants
Wealthy south elite conscious need to legitimise slavery – show it wasn’t immoral
o Calhoun reframed slavery as positive good NOT necessary evil- central institution of Southern
Society - slavery society superior to northern wage slavery
Hostility of abolitionists to slavery was reframed as hostility to South
Perceived threat- stirring up slave rebellion posed threat to Southern peace+ security-
c.1845 conception that abolitionism was widespread in north- impression that northern
and southern societies were increasingly different.
Exacerbated an already serious division
, o Slaveowners- right of property in people were enshrined in the constitution
Constitution served to protect freedom of individuals- slavery- local Southern institution
not constitutionally protected national institution
o 1820 – Mason Dixon Line – ended slavery above 36.30 , 1840 – 9 states- Personal liberty Laws
–wouldn’t assist slaveowners seeking to recover runaway property
o Southerners perceive general hostility to slavery and southern society- unwillingness to
acknowledge constitutional rights
Presented Underground Railway as an organised conspiracy rather than an ad hoc and
loosely organised idea
Nat Turner Rebellion 1831- 55 whites killed – Southerners blames abolitionists
South excluded abolitionist literature – circulation had penalty of death in some states
Saw creation of new slave states as essential to protecting equality and rights in
Washington + states’ rights as guarantee of rights -limit power of a federal government
William Lloyd Garrison – 1830s- Liberator – arguing slavery was a sin and demanded
immediate abolition, National Anti-Slavery Society 1833- militant – by 1838- 250,000
members including Frederick Douglass- churned out anti-slavery literature, petitioned
congress BUT Congress introduced gag rule 1836- abolitionist petitions weren’t discussed
o Abolitionism had limited appeal in North – didn’t want northern exodus of slaves – anti-
slavery mobs were broken up by angry Northern mobs- Elijah Lovejoy 1837 murdered by
Northern Mob Illinois – didn’t even win support of Democrats/ Whigs – 1840- Abolitionist
Liberty Party presidential candidate only won 7000 votes
Though economic change and westward expansion highlighted differences between N + S ,
c.1845 the divisions they provoked could be diffused by compromise
Slavery was a more important division between the sections – by 1845
Economic growth and growing population imbalance – rise of northern anti-slavery attitudes and
planters paranoia regarding their ability to protect their rights within the federal government-
slavery became the most serious division between N + S
‘The main issue dividing north and south, c1845, was
disagreement about the balance of power between the
Federal Government and the States.’(25)
Introduction
Disagreement about balance of power did cause division between the North and the South but
wasn’t main cause of division between North and South- slavery and westward expansion were
Para 1 – Disagreement did cause lasting damage between the North and South
2 opposing ideologies between North and South – states’ rights vs federalism
South = states’ rights- States agree to share some sovereignty with federal government as long
as the government serves in their best interests and can nullify legislation if they don’t
o Limited federal government power - wasn’t important early stages of Union – South had
more electoral college votes - dominated federal government – 6/8 presidents up to Jackson
Southerners -Northern population growth led to growth in representation
North believed federalism - States don’t share sovereignty with federal govt.- union created in
response to people NOT states
o Daniel Webster Speech in response to Robert Hayne - Union Is 1 , states are inseparable - No
state has right to nullify –disintegrates bonds of the Union
States’ rights key in defence of slavery which was threatened by the North - removal of slavery
could not be imposed on the slave states
North believed that their states’ rights were being encroached on by what they saw as ‘slave
power’ taking control of Federal Government, notably under the Presidency of Polk.
, Nevertheless - political parties divided by states’ rights (Democrats for stronger states’ rights,
Whigs for stronger Federal Government)- both parties received votes in both North and South
Para 2 – State rights ideology that came from disagreements about how much power is shared by
the states created other issues that caused Division between the North and South
South believed on issues like imposition of tariffs- interests of Southerners were being ignored
o South favoured low levels of tariffs, North wanted high tariffs to protect industry
Difference explicated through the Nullification crisis and ‘Tariff of Abominations’
o 1828 Tariff triggered South Carolinian response –38% tariff on 92% of all imported goods –
protecting Northern industry from competition but disadvantaging South
Triggered Southern anger + some states nullifying it –constitutional crisis
o The Nullification Crisis highlighted belief held by some in the South that states had the right
to nullify Federal laws. South Carolinian actions led to outrage in the North
o South’s view that the Northern states benefitted disproportionately as a result of the tariffs
was divisive, and that essentially they were paying for the Northerners benefit.
Calhoun– ‘South Carolina Exposition and Protest’- criticising protective tariff –tariffs
should raise revenue NOT artificially boost Northern business
Labelled S. Carolina as ‘serf of the system’- due to how they were forced to pay higher
prices for necessities.
Tariff ordered not to be collected – Jackson mobilised militia – showing divisive nature of
conflict
o The compromise made by Henry clay – tariff levels progressively being reduced now and in
the future = Calhoun and S. Carolina accept compromise BUT they still nullified the Force Act
– establishing in Southern Mind that they still have the right to nullify
o Continued to be a source of political tension - President Tyler vetoing 2 bills passed by
Congress calling for higher tariffs 1840- Whigs beginning impeachment proceedings.
Para 3 – Westward Expansion and economic was the most divisive
Para 4 – Slavery was most divisive not disagreement
a. Slavery – constitution itself was a compromise – degree of ambiguity – no reference to slavery
but reference to property 5th amendment + does make provision for recovery of property and by
extension slavery if they run away – how it has to be performed isn’t prescribed in constitution
itself- just indicates that slaveowners have right to regain property themselves
b. 1793 Fugitive Slave Act – extent to which laws of one state are recognised by other states – you
have to rely on other states recognising your state law but if they don’t acknowledge that – this
creates a problem – slaves may run away or people may procure their freedom – issues over
how to uphold property rights of Southerners- FSA may say you have right to cover but doesn’t
produce federal tools to enforce it – no police force or means to procure recovery of property –
depends on state governments – seen through personal liberty laws which gives turn to legal
judgement – Prigg v Pennsylvania 1840- acknowledges the right of slaveowners to recover prop-
erty but also the right of a state to decide themselves on whether to acknowledge this right –
cant require citizens of a state that outlaws slavery to assist slaveowners in recovering property
on their behalf
c. In 1830s following nullification crisis – the Liberator William Garrison talking about secession
from the South – talking about evil of the South – slavery is its own issue in its own right how-
ever NOT constitution- now moral issue – abolitionism sees it as moral taint
i. Remain in a union with tainted states – lords of loom vs lash – abolitionists see north as
complicit in slavery- Whigs are the lords of the loom – abolitionism raises whole issue
of slavery – unresolved issues are important and in slavery they have become very im-
portant -1 unresolved issue that is now distinct from constitutional issue
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