AQA A Level Psychology Paper 1
4.1 Introductory topics in Psychology
Topic: Attachment
All 16 marker topic essays
1) Outline and evaluate caregiver-infant interactions (16)
Interactions between caregivers and infants provide an insight into the type
and nature of attachment. Reciprocity is when an infant responds to the
actions of another by turn taking. The actions of the primary caregiver elicit a
response from the infant. The interaction between both individuals flows back
and forth. Meltzoff and Moore conducted an observational study whereby an
adult displayed facial expressions or a hand gesture. Following the display
from the model, a dummy was removed from the child’s mouth and their
expressions were filmed. It was found that there was an association between
the infants’ behaviour and that of the adult model, showing reciprocity.
Interactional synchrony takes place when infants mirror the actions or
emotions of another person, for example their facial expressions. The child will
move their body, or carry out the same act as their caregiver simultaneously.
This serves to sustain communication between the caregiver and infant.
One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is the questionable
reliability of testing children. This is because infants move their mouths and
wave their arms constantly, which is an issue for researchers investigating
intentional behaviour. Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were
engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour
may have occurred by chance. This questions the validity of research in
relation to reciprocity and interactional synchrony and suggests that
psychologists should be cautious when interpreting the findings from research
in this area.
Another limitation is that there are methodological issues with studying
interactional synchrony using observational methods. There is the possibility
of observer bias where the researchers consciously or unconsciously interpret
behaviour to support their findings. To address this problem, more than one
,observer should be used to examine the inter-observer reliability of the
observations. This suggests that, unless they are dealt with, the techniques
used to observe interactional synchrony in infants isn’t reliable, and so it may
not tell us much about how they form attachments. Additionally, recent
research by Koepke et al failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and Moore
which provides further evidence that their results of research examining
infant-caregiver infant interactions are unreliable.
A further criticism of Meltzoff and Moore’s research is that recent research has
found that only securely attached infants engage in interactional synchrony.
Isabella et al found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the
level of interactional synchrony. This suggests that not all children engage in
interactional synchrony and that Meltzoff and Moore’s original findings may
have overlooked individual differences which could be a mediating factor.
Psychologists suggest that caregiver-infant interactions, such as reciprocity,
are present from birth and so are the product of nature in order to help infants
form and maintain an attachment. However, such innate behaviours do not act
in isolation and interact with the environment, such as caregivers, to prompt a
response, such as attention. Consequently, researchers should consider the
interaction of innate infant behaviours with the environment to fully appreciate
and understand the complex nature of caregiver-infant interactions.
, 2) Outline and evaluate the role of the father in the development of
attachment (16)
Traditionally, the role of the father in attachment would have been limited, as
they would go to work to provide resources for the family whilst the mothers
took care of the children. Although recently, the role of the father has changed.
However, psychologists disagree over the exact role of the father. Some
researchers claim that men are simply not equipped to form an attachment.
Such psychologists, such as Heerman et al, point to biological evidence which
suggests that the hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women
and the lack of oestrogen in men is why they are unable to form a close
attachment. However, Field found that when fathers have the main caregiver
role, they adopt behaviours typical of mothers. Other researchers argue that
fathers do not take on a caregiver role and, in fact, provide a different role, as
a playmate. Finally, some argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive
responsiveness and react to the needs of their children and thus can form a
strong emotional tie or bond.
A strength of research into the role of the father is research evidence that
provides support for the role of the father as a ‘playmate’. Research by Geiger
found that fathers’ play interactions were more exciting in comparison to
mothers’. However, the mothers’ play interactions were more affectionate and
nurturing. This suggests that the role of the father is, in fact, as a playmate
and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children.
Further support for this comes from Field who observed primary caretaker
mothers, primary caretaker fathers and secondary caretaker fathers
interacting with their 4-month-old infants. It was found that in general, fathers
focused more on game playing and less on holding. This provides further
support that the role of the father is one of a ‘playmate’.
Another strength is research evidence also suggests that fathers do not
provide a sensitive and nurturing attachment. Hardy found that fathers were
less able to detect low levels of infant distress, in comparison to mothers. This
appears to support the biological explanation that the lack of oestrogen in men
means that fathers are not biologically equipped to form close attachments
with their children. This therefore suggests that the role of the father is, to
some extent, biologically determined and that a father’s role is restricted
because of their biological makeup. This provides further evidence that fathers
