Theme 1
Ideology
Alexander II
Followed the Fundamental Laws of 1832: where the Emperor of all Russians is an anointed
and unlimited monarch.
Despite showing reformist tendencies, after a failed assasination attempt in 1866, from the
revolutionary Karakozov, he moved closer to autocracy.
Known as Tsar Liberator.
Alexander III
Believed the move to liberalism resulted in his father’s assassination. Strongly followed the
three pillars of Tsarism.
Ruthlessly suppressed opposition such as the People’s Will. These reverses were influenced
by Pobedonostsev. Didn’t support universal suffrage as political power could easily be
shattered by individuals.
Nicholas II
Ideology incapable of handling the middle classes. Exacerbated by poor leadership, as he
refused to read government reports. Influenced by tutor Pobedonostsev, believed
democracy would being fall of Empire.
Introduced another set of Fundamental Laws (1906), which reiterated his supreme autocratic
power, despite decreeing liberal concessions.
The reforms of 1905 were inspired by economic crises and the loss of the Russo-Japanese
war.
Provisional Government
Views of prime minister Kerensky: Unwilling to make a separate peace deal with Germany,
which was supported by moderate liberals and socialists. Didn’t want to go for a full scale
oppression of Bolsheviks, believing it’d lead to more rioting and violence. Was unsure on
how the economy could be handled whilst in war.
Lenin
Thought it’d be better to overthrow the existing ruling order by attacking the bases instead of
hoping to gain concessions in the capitalist system.
Supposedly welcomed the war to eradicate the bourgeoisie, as the Bolshevik Reds defeated
the Whites.
Replaced the famine-inducing war communism with the NEP, which gave people freedom to
sell and buy goods.
Bolsheviks thought that serfdom and capitalism should be replaced by a more egalitarian
(fairer) society that revolved about cooperation, to destroy the older superstructure.
,Believed in the Labour theory of value, that the proletariat would never gain a full value of
their efforts because a disproportionate amount of wages would be taken away to provide
profits.
Established the RSFSR in Jan 1918, defined the state as a dictatorship of the urban and
rural proletariat. During the civil war, it absorbed conquered lands and set up republics which
weren’t ever free to rule themselves.
Marxism saw parliamentary representation as a class based concept where the bourgeoisie
government could continue its reigns on the proletariat. Bolshevik thus had to control on all
levels, under democratic centralism.
Stalin
1928 onwards: Stalin moved Russia towards totalitarianism with a 2-part ideology:
Personalisation of the system - Stalin would be in sole control of the economy, society, and
politics (achieved through propaganda, increased censorship, and widespread repression &
Purges)
A centralised economy would be based on central planning and collectivisation.
Stalin was a megalomaniac - he did whatever was needed to gain and maintain absolute
control - building a culture of fear.
Totalitarianism is what Stalin believed Lenin was moving towards before his death -
establishment of the Party Central Committee and the Cheka indicated Lenin’s desire to
centralise his control
Marxism claims the dictatorship of the proletariat will move towards the classless society and
withering away of formal structures. Stalinist policies prevented this from occurring.
Khrushchev
Power struggle after Stalin’s death led to a government of collective leadership - mostly
under the control of Khrushchev, who recognised that the USSR needed to be moved away
from Stalinism. Took lead in conspiracy to remove Beria in 1953. Had been very ruthless
and efficient under Stalin, organised purges in Ukraine before the war, organised defence of
Stalingrad and deported many Ukrainian Jews in in the late 1940s. Also helped by how
Stalin had purged so many opponents for leadership.
The Secret Speech (1956) denounced Stalin: revealing that Lenin never wanted Stalin in
power, Stalin had not adequately prepared the USSR for WW2, Stalin had committed crimes
against the Russian people, and possible allies, e.g. Hungary, had been alienated by Stalin
Destalinisation featured the following: releasing political prisoners from the gulags; relaxing
censorship; removing the cult of personality.
Changed Marxist theory on class warfare with peaceful coexistence, didn’t believe
communist and capital worlds would inevitably lead to violence conflict. By boasting about
increases in nuclear weaponry alarmed the USA into increasing arsenal, widening the gap.
Decline in relations with communist China, who has less respect for Khrushchev than Stalin.
Events in Hungary made Mao distrust Khrushchev. The UN shoe banging incident caused
much embarrassment.
, Central Government
Alexander II
The Tsar had four separate bodies which helped him to govern. These include:
The Council of Ministers, which was appointed by the Tsar and discussed draft
legislation.
The Imperial Council of State, which gave advice on legal and financial matters. Was
seen as the ‘retirement homes’ for older government servants.
The Senate, which was the Supreme Court. Was the final court on legal matter,
promoters of manifestos and the adjudicator over land disagreements.
The Committee of Ministers, which were 13 ministers who each administered a
certain aspect, such as the war, finance, interior and holy synod. Purely
administrative and didn’t formulate policies, often conflicted with each other.
Alexander II
Abolished the Council of Ministers in 1882 and shared out the responsibility elsewhere in the
government.
Nicholas II
Stolypin; was he a potential saviour of Tsarism? His objective was to prolong and strengthen
tsarism by steady reform, he saw a limited role for the Duma but he failed to save tsarism
because he was assassinated in 1911 and he failed to see the need to reform the current
system. Influence of Rasputin and Tsarina Alexandra. Under the October Manifesto,
reformed the central government heavily:
The Council of Ministers, was a parliamentary cabinet headed by a Prime Minister.
The Ministers oversaw the debates of the houses, but under Article 87, could directly
report to the Tsar when the two houses were in recess. Thus the other bodies could
easily be bypassed.
The upper chamber, the State Council, checked on the Duma who they gave
permission to discuss reforms. Members were nominated as representatives of
towns, churches, etc.
The lower chamber, the Duma, could only block proposed legislation. The electoral
college prioritized those with land and wealth.
The four Dumas had varying levels of success:
The first Duma (April to July 1906) was disbanded after offering radical solutions to
the land distribution issue. The Duma MP’s passed the Vyborg Manifesto, which
asked for the Finns to not pay taxes until the body was restored, resulting in Stolypin
introducing field court martials.
The second Duma (Feb to June 1907) was disbanded after a SD was framed for
attempting to arrange an army mutiny. Had more further right and left members.
The third Duma, (Nov 1907 to June 1912) had more loyalists, though was successful
in reinstating the justices of peace and abolishing land captains, whilst strengthening
the army.
The fourth Duma, (Nov 1912 to Feb 1917), was more turbulent as the far right
members placed pressure on the Tsar to abdicate, especially after state police
brutally killed miners at the Lena Goldfields.
, The progressive block in 1915, pushed Nicholas to create a national government to
deal with the war, leading the Tsar to temporarily suspend the fourth Duma in
August.
Provisional Government
The Central Government was composed of two bodies:
The Provisional Government, comprised of the old members of the Fourth Duma.
Seen as a temporary measure until a constituent assembly could be formed.
The Petrograd Soviet, which was filled with worker’s representatives. Had full control
over the Russian Army due to the Soviet Order No.1 which was signed on the 1st
March, also have regiments ability to elect committees that would send
representatives to the Soviet.
The Bolsheviks rejected the constituent assembly as it would ‘favor old interests’ to the
detriment of the lower classes. Lenin published in his April Theses, condemning the
government for being bourgeois and calling for Soviet power.
Lenin
Followed democratic centralism, parties policies are binding to all members regardless of
opinions.
Only won 175 seats against 410 for SR’s in the first election. Lenin considered these
redundant as it represented a ‘higher stage of democracy dominated by the bourgeoisie’.
Assembly only lasted for a day (5th Jan 1918) and those who demonstrated in favor of the
assembly were fired upon by soldiers.
Disbanded the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets after the SR’s and Mensheviks
coalition alliance walked out in protest, on the 25th October. This was replaced by the new
government:
The All Russian Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee.
The Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom), had specific governmental
responsibilities. Trotsky oversaw foreign affairs and Stalin dealt with national ties.
The chairman was Lenin and also composed of left wing SR’s. Became less
influential in the ‘20s.
The Cheka, established in December 1917. Headed by Dzerzhinski, a Polish
communist, and was used to prevent the growth of counter revolutionary movements.
Replaced by the GPU in 1922.
Theoretically democratic, as Village Soviet’s would choose representatives for District
Soviets who chose for the provincial Soviets, who made up the Sovnarkom. However, at
local levels, the parties consisted of cells up whose members would organize meetings to
gain grass root support.
The CEC administrated and operated three political offices:
The Politburo, an elite group of Bolsheviks who formulated policies and ran the party.
Took much of the power from the Sovnarkom.
The Orgburo who organized party affairs.
The Ogburo, who maintained order and dealt with opposition.
Also made up of the Nomenklatura, approved officers, administrators and managers in the
regime who passed specialist skills. This grew into numbers to around 730k in 1921, as it
was the only way to get involved in politics.
Increased the number of Soviets across the country to spread authority.
