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Britain Challenge and Transformation Full Revision Guide
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- Breadth study
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A full revision guide for AQA A-Level History Britain: Challenge and Transformation .
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Section 1: Reform and Challenge, c1851 - c1886The political system
Learning objectives:
Parliament and the workings of mid-nineteenth century democracy.
Ruling elites.
Prime Ministers.
Parties and party realignment to 1867.
The repeal of the Corn Laws
Sir Robert peel (Tory PM since 1841) split party over repeal of Corn
Laws. Corn Laws protected landowners/farmers from competition
from cheap foreign corn coming into Britain. Corn Laws controversial
as kept price of bread artificially high. 1845 potato blight caused
catastrophic famine in Ireland. Peel felt morally obliged to repeal Corn
Laws = alleviate Irish suffering. Dominant landed interest in Tory
Party refused to agree. Peel carried repeal = accused of treachery.
Faced with fierce opposition from within party, Peel resigned Dec
1845. Tory Party split in 2: Peelites left party.
Protected trade and free trade
Protected trade is when gov imposes taxes on imported goods to
support home production. Free trade is economic policy that
promotes free exchange of goods between nations without imposing
duties. Peel supported free trade.
Parliament and the workings of mid-nineteenth century
democracy
Effects of 1832 Parliamentary Reform Act being felt. Act strengthened
concept of representative gov and made political system more
democratic and thus had effect of weakening political power of
monarch and traditional ruling elites (landowning aristocracy).
Continuing creation of wealth/growth of prosperity in Britain through
industrialisation was gradually increasing size of electorate as more
men met property requirements of 1832 Act to qualify for franchise.
Britain – a constitutional monarchy:
Bill of Rights 1689 established principle of supremacy of Parliament
over monarch. Position of monarchy based in established
, traditions/habits rather than power clearly defined in written
constitution.
House of Lords (unelected hereditary peers) and House of Commons
(elected representatives).
Monarch head of state but left making/passing laws to Parliament.
Business of gov continued mostly without interference of monarch but
legislation still required consent of monarch.
Parliament and democracy in the mid-nineteenth century:
Power/influence of Parliament strengthening and replacing that of
monarch.
Increasing influence of HoC over HoL. Lords positioned as the ruling
elite (great political influence) who had power to block measures
passed by the HoC.
Members of HoC chosen through parliamentary elections at least every
7 years. Each gov led by PM and Cabinet. PM leader of party that had
majority in HoC and relied on Common support to maintain position
and carry out business of gov.
Commons reflected dominance of Lords (MPs in Commons = sons,
relatives, friends of aristocrats in Lords).
Started to change after 1832 Reform Act extended franchise to m/c,
some became MPs. Before industrialisation brought economic benefits,
small m/c willing t accept political power/authority rested in hands of
landed aristocracy. BUT as m/c grew in number and enjoyed
wealth/prosperity they helped to create, they believed they had right to
take share in that power and were not best served by landed
aristocracy who acted mainly in own interests.
Organisation of parliamentary constituencies disadvantaged m/c.
Constituencies uneven in size so large industrial towns severely under-
represented. Divided into borough and county constituencies, each
with different voting qualifications but each retuning 2 MPs. Laned elite
controlled most county constituencies.
Redistribution of parliamentary seats in 1832 Reform Act meant
growing centres of population (Bham, Manc, Leeds, Shef) represented
in Parliament for 1st time and small boroughs with declining populations
where election of MPs controlled by local landowners, lost their seats.
As result, landed aristocracy no longer held monopoly of political power
and forced to share with newly enfranchised m/c merchants,
manufacturers and professional classes who dominated rapidly
expanding industrial towns.
Increasing number of m/c men = MPs. BUT by 1850s only 20-25% MPs
had no connection to aristocracy/landed gentry. Politics rich man’s
, occupation as MPs not paid. Running costs to be MP = £500/year and
all election expenses had to be met (£1000-£3000).
BUT changes occurring and democratic progress made in 1858 with
abolition of the qualification (annual income of £300) to stand as
parliamentary candidate.
Other reform bills introduced but failed = lack of public pressure and
m/c enjoying period of prosperity and generally satisfied with
parliamentary system. W/c excluded from political reform + their
movement for extension of franchise (Chartism) failed to make
progress in 1840s. Result = only men of property could vote (1/6 of
adult male population). Women played no part in political process.
Many believed no need for further reform.
Social background of MPs widened steadily. By 1886 2/3 MPs were
drawn from industry, commerce and the professions. They represented
the new industrial wealth of Britain. They mostly voted with Whigs to
form majority govs for much of period, while Tories (party of landed
interest) struggled with short-term minority govs. The reform
strengthened the HoC = gradually able to impose its will on
Lords/monarch as it opened way for further parliamentary reform BUT
this did not occur until 1867.
Ruling elites:
Ruling elites in government
Ruling elites (politically powerful aristocratic families) either Whigs or
Tories.
Whigs regarded Parliament as check on royal power. More liberal and
pro-reform e.g. Lord John Russell.
Tories defended established institutions e.g. monarchy. E.g. Lord
Derby.
Peelites closely associated with commercial, wealthy m/c interests,
rather than old aristocracy.
In boroughs, local gov shared between landowning gentry and the
merchants. In rural areas the landowning (ruling) elite maintained
control over local affairs.
British ruling classes/elite predominantly members of old aristocratic
families. Small, powerful, wealthy group, belonging to relatively closed
society. Interest in maintaining their political dominance.
Their political power, wealth, social dominance came from ownership of
vast tracts of land, which until 1832 Reform Act, enabled them to
control nominations for the majority of seats in HoC. They were in
Parliament principally to look after own interests and seek political
advancement.
, Members of aristocracy/landowning elite derived wealth from land and
made even wealthier by early 19th cent agricultural improvements and
increased demand for the mineral deposits (coal/iron) found on their
land.
Continued to control most political, social, economic activity. Even
though their monopoly of political power breached, their position in the
counties had strengthened and they continued to have influence over
election.
Voting carried out in public on the hustings = could evict people who
didn’t vote for their preferred candidate, or pay them off. Bribery
regarded as ancient custom and privilege rather than abuse of power.
Mid 19th cent, PM relied on HoC support to maintain his position to carry
on business of gov. Despite this, most PMs/Cabinet ministers belonged
to ruling elite and sat in HoL.
They were able to retain their dominant position, largely through the
acquiescence of m/c, who, now they had share in political process,
positioned themselves as defenders of the constitution. Satisfied with
own political progress, m/c were content not to actively pursue further
democracy. Result = successful m/c men (entrepreneurs,
manufacturers, merchants, businessmen) who were creating the new
industrial wealth were slowly integrated into political system and
shaping its future and were themselves gradually becoming part of
new ruling elite.
Prime ministers:
1850s/60s = great prosperity but also political instability. Series of
short-lived govs and 5 different PMs.
Lord John Russell’s Whig gov entering its final year in 1851. Did not
have majority in Commons but survived 6 yrs with support from
Peelites. Russell weak/ineffective, devoted to ideals of political reform
but unable to inspire his political followers. His persistence in
attempting to extend religious toleration to Jews/Roman
Catholics/Dissenters made him unpopular with traditional more
conservative Whigs. Upset most of supports with series of poor
judgements. He was in forefront of raising issue of parliamentary
reform, believing franchise should be extended to some of w/c.
After fall of Lord John Russell in 1852, govs followed in quick
succession. Tory Lord Derby formed minority gov = lasted months.
1852 by Lord Aberdeen who led coalition of Whigs/Peelites. Aberdeen
had strong Cabinet with reforming programme (education, religious
tolerance, penal reform, parliamentary reform). Chancellor of
Exchequer Gladstone introduced free trade budget. Outbreak of
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