How far do you agree that British agriculture was transformed in the years 1625-88? (2022)
LoA: Definite developments and improvements, lots of new techniques etc, BUT overall not
transformed
Criteria: as it only impacted a minority
Para 1 - yes - changes to techniques
Nitrogen-rich crops = artichokes, clover, asparagus
Enclosure - fencing off, reserved for 1 tenant, reduce duplication and rivalry, 1650 = way to
escape subsistence farming, increased efficiency.
Increased literacy = more yeomen and husbandry can use books (Walter Blith's discussed
water meadows, better drainage and manure fertiliser)
As much land used as possible (1420 = 7m acres for farming and 3m left fallow, 1700 = 9m
with 1.8m left fallow)
Rotation improved - trial new crops (potatoes)
Frost-resistant turnips from low countries, Dutch irrigation.
Crops aided industry (linen, hemp = rope).
Capital investment - higher gentry and aristocracy modernised, buy neighbouring land to
test new crops, S midlands 1700 = 53.6% agricultural land part of large estates of 100+ acres
(32.2% in 1600), increasing in size meant parts could be leased to others, as rents increased
people needed to specialise to keep up with funding so owners would offer loans to buy
equipment in exchange for more produce.
BUT: Small landowners and peasants suffered without common land and crop rotation,
Oxfordshire = enclosure wasn't widespread and still had successful centres of agricultural
innovation, Sherrington at Buckinghamshire = most freeholder driver out due to debt post-
1660 (couldn't compete with larger enclosed farms), not everyone was literate (not
widespread), small tenants suffered with enclosure, many worked in small-scale cloth trade
(240,000 in 1700) to feed family, yeomen and husbandmen couldn't afford capital
investment, more small family farms than big ones as you go pastoral N.
Para 2 - yes - national markets and specialised farming
Specialised farming
Aware of regional specialities - soil in SE = warm and dry -> arable, N = wet -> pastoral.
Transport improvements led to national markets and market gardens -> can focus on one
specialised crop (e.g. SE = wheat, hops, hemp)
London = shipment of grain via Thames increased from 500,000 in 1605 to 1,150,000 in 1661
Market gardens in Whitechapel, Fulham and London.
Turnpike act 1663 = toll roads, linked major markets
Ogilby's road atlas 1675 mapped 7500+ miles of road
Water transport = coal from Newcastle to London via East coast - Charles I protect ships on
this roue with royal navy
Dredging and widening of rivers
BUT: husbandmen only have 40 acres so can't easily exploit opportunities and only able to
meet demand and grow local produce (less risks), many still used local markets and national
market didn't develop clearly in Scotland and Ireland (colonial and hard to get to), demand
in London drained resources from surroundings (SE = lower living conditions)
How significant were the Navigation Acts in the development of Britain's trading empire in the
years 1651-88? (2021)
LoA:
, Criteria:
Para 1 - Navigation Acts and mercantilism (yes)
Mercantilism = practice of accumulating wealth through trade - restrict all but necessary
imports and maximise exports to create a self-sufficient economy and gain profit.
Reasons for international trade: Royal navy able to enforce English supremacy at sea, war,
spread of Protestantism, loss of territory led to collapse of Catholic Spanish trading empire,
navigation acts reduced trading strength of other naval powers.
Navigation Act #1 1651 = goods imported to Eng territories had to be carried on Eng ships ->
remove Dutch monopoly, all crew had to be 1/2+ British in nationality, helped Eng draperies
dominate textile industry, customs revenues increased by 3.5x '43-59.
Navigation Act #2 1660 = confirmed earlier legislation and banned exports being carried on
foreign ships, list of goods (tobacco, sugar, etc) which could only be transported to Eng and
colonies.
Staple Act 1663 = all goods shipped to NA had to pass through Eng -> cornerstone of
commercial expansion and success in second part of century -> raw materials re-opened to
continent.
Plantation Duty Act 1673 = captains of Eng ships deliver specified goods only or faced
financial penalty (Caribbean).
The Dutch agreed to respect the Navigation Act after the war of 1652–54, leading to growing
British trade in areas including the Baltic and the Far East.
.Anglo-Dutch wars (1609-49 = Dutch dominance and beginning of rivalry, 1649-74 = Eng
stronger militarily but not economically and commercial rivalry led to wars 1652, 1665 and
1672, 1674-88 = reduction in rivalry as the two states allied against France). EIC 1600 vs
Dutch United EIC 1602, Charles II issued a Charter to give the Royal African Company a
monopoly over West Africa 1663 which aggravated Dutch who previously controlled West
Africa, 1670 partnered with French against Dutch, Louis revoked Edict of Nantes 1685 which
led to French protestants coming to Eng and Holland and led to anti-French feeling in both
and ended rivalry.
BUT: Needed contact with colonies and the resources they provided to motivate NAs and
other pro-mercantilism Acts, Anglo-Dutch wars did little to promote English economy - they
costed England much more than they brought in, Navigation Act relaxed when Dutch won
war 1665 = limited, EIC prospered but completely undermines mercantilism as it was a
private company.
Most Important/links: Helped to promote colonies and trading of goods provided by
colonies, rivalry incentivised and encouraged more aggressive mercantilism and furthering of
economy, helped to establish Eng in the trading world and thus increased strength when
dealing with colonies.
Para 2 - Triangular trade (and colonies)
Slaves to Caribbean and NA colonies -> sold for produce that could be sold for a higher price
than original shipment to Africa -> Europe (Britain takes goods to Africa, reload with slaves,
take to Caribbean, reload with goods like sugar that slaves make, back to Britain).
1640 Eng transport slaves but none in NA colonies, 1660 slavery in law in most colonies,
1700 = 120,000 slaves in mainly Caribbean, 1660 Antigua ad Monserrat short of labour so
slave trade benefitted both slave traders and plantation owners.
Royal African Company 1672 could now levy own army + set up military bases + trading
posts.
Gold from Africa contributed to Royal Mint, Liverpool and Bristol became centres for slave
trade, 15 Lord Mayors of London had shares in RAC 1660-90, 'Guinea' coin first minted 1663.
