Final Exam NUR6501 Advanced
Pathophysiology, 2024
**Question 1**
Describe the physiological changes that occur in the body during the stress response.
The stress response involves activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,
leading to increased secretion of cortisol and catecholamines, which prepare the body for 'fight
or flight' by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose availability.
**Question 2**
What role do free radicals play in cellular injury?
Free radicals cause oxidative damage to cellular components, including lipids, proteins, and
DNA, contributing to the development of various diseases and aging.
**Question 3**
Explain the significance of the inflammatory response in tissue healing.
The inflammatory response is essential for tissue healing as it involves the recruitment of
immune cells to the site of injury, removal of pathogens and debris, and the initiation of the
repair process through cytokine signaling and tissue regeneration.
**Question 4**
Discuss the pathophysiology of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).
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, HFpEF is characterized by impaired diastolic filling due to ventricular stiffness and reduced
compliance, leading to elevated filling pressures, pulmonary congestion, and systemic
symptoms, often seen in elderly patients with comorbidities like hypertension.
**Question 5**
What are the primary mechanisms of action for beta-blockers in the treatment of hypertension?
Beta-blockers lower blood pressure by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors, reducing heart
rate and contractility, decreasing cardiac output, and inhibiting renin release from the kidneys,
which lowers angiotensin II levels.
**Question 6**
Describe the differences between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin
deficiency, while Type 2 diabetes involves insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency, often
associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome.
**Question 7**
How does chronic kidney disease (CKD) affect mineral and bone metabolism?
CKD leads to decreased renal excretion of phosphate and reduced activation of vitamin D,
causing secondary hyperparathyroidism, hyperphosphatemia, and disturbances in calcium
metabolism, contributing to renal osteodystrophy.
**Question 8**
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,Explain the role of cytokines in the immune response.
Cytokines are signaling proteins that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and
hematopoiesis, facilitating communication between immune cells and orchestrating the body's
response to infection and injury.
**Question 9**
What is the pathophysiological mechanism of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?
COPD is characterized by chronic inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and airflow
limitation due to structural changes in the airways and alveoli, primarily caused by smoking and
environmental pollutants.
**Question 10**
Discuss the effects of aging on the cardiovascular system.
Aging leads to structural and functional changes in the cardiovascular system, including
arterial stiffness, decreased myocardial contractility, and impaired autonomic regulation,
increasing the risk of hypertension and heart failure.
**Question 11**
Describe the clinical significance of the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) in assessing neurological
function.
The GCS assesses a patient's level of consciousness based on eye, verbal, and motor
responses, providing crucial information about neurological status, potential brain injury, and the
need for immediate intervention.
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, **Question 12**
What are the common causes of metabolic alkalosis?
Common causes of metabolic alkalosis include vomiting, diuretic use, hypokalemia, and
excessive bicarbonate intake, leading to increased blood pH and potential complications.
**Question 13**
Explain the role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in blood pressure
regulation.
RAAS regulates blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction, sodium retention, and fluid
volume expansion through the actions of angiotensin II and aldosterone, maintaining
cardiovascular homeostasis.
**Question 14**
What are the characteristic findings of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)?
ARDS is characterized by severe hypoxemia, bilateral pulmonary infiltrates, and decreased
lung compliance due to diffuse alveolar damage and increased permeability of the alveolar-
capillary membrane.
**Question 15**
Discuss the impact of hyperthyroidism on the body's metabolic processes.
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