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A* Alevel Psychology Notes - Approaches in Psychology
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A* Alevel Psychology Notes - Approaches in Psychology
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Approaches in PsychologyOrigins of Psychology
To emerge fully as a science Psychology had to adopt the scientific method used in the natural
sciences, as these were soon as the only reliable source of knowledge on the natural world. Whilst
initially this was tepid as the widely held belief was that the mind and brain were beyond empirical
study, the development of the science as it is today bloomed in the 19 th century with Wilhelm Wundt
a key player.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Wundt was the first to call himself a psychologist, and his empirical approach to understanding the
mind paved the way for it to be accepted as a science. In his laboratory he studied behaviour that
could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions, including reaction time and aspects of
sensation and perception. Wundt took a reductionist approach, aiming to understand the structure
of the human mind by breaking it down into components. This was referred to as structuralism, and
the main technique within this was introspection. Wundt eventually realised that higher level
processes could not be studied in controlled conditions, and would have to be described in terms of
general trends in behaviour amongst groups of people. He later coined this cultural psychology.
Introspection is the process by which we gain knowledge about our own mental state and processes,
allowing us to observe our inner world. Wundt theorised that with sufficient training, processes such
as memory and perception could be systematically observed using introspection. In Wundt’s study of
perception, participants were presented with carefully controlled auditory or visual stimulus. They
were then asked to describe the inner processes they were experiencing, making it possible to
compare different reports and form general theories about mental processes.
The Emergence of Psychology as a Science
Psychology relies on a philosophical view known as empiricism. This holds that knowledge can only
come from observation and experience and Wundt was the first to apply this to the study of human
beings. This new scientific approach was based on two major assumptions. First, all behaviour is
seen as being caused. This is the assumption of determinism. Second, if behaviour is caused, it
should be possible to predict behaviour in different conditions. This is the assumption of
predictability. The technique used to explore these assumptions is known as the scientific method.
The scientific method involves the use of investigative techniques that are objective, systematic and
replicable. Objectivity means researchers do not let preconceived biases influence their research.
Systematic refers to the fact that experiments or observations are carried out in an ordered way,
and that measurements of empirical data are carried out accurately and with consideration for
extraneous variables. Replicability refers to observations that can be repeated by others to
determine the consistency of results. If results are not reliable, they cannot be held to be universal.
The research process also necessitates the use of reason to explain the results of empirical
observations. The development of theories and testing and reform of theories completes the
scientific cycle. This starts with observation, then building, refining or falsifying a theory, then
development of a theory and lastly testing before the cycle begins again.
, Evaluation
A criticism of Wundt’s approach is that it relied primarily on responses that couldn’t be observed.
Although participants could report on conscious experience, the processes themselves were
considered to be unobservable constructions. Wundt’s theories ultimately failed because of a lack of
reliability: introspective results were not reproduced by other researchers in other labs. In contrast,
early behaviourists such as Pavlov were achieving replicable results and discovering principles that
could easily be generalised universally.
Furthermore, introspection is not particularly accurate. We have very little knowledge of the causes
and the processes underlying behaviour and attitudes. Nisbett and Wilson (1977) found that
participants were remarkably unaware of influential factors in their choice of a consumer item. This
is a particular problem for implicit attitudes, i.e. attitudes that are unknown to us. A person may be
implicitly racist, but because this exists outside of conscious awareness, self-report through
introspection would not uncover it.
However, introspection is still useful in scientific psychology. In recent years it has made something
of a comeback. It has been used as a way of making happiness a measurable phenomenon. Groups
of teenagers were given beepers that went off randomly during the day, surprising participants and
requiring them to write down their thoughts and feelings in the moment before the beep. Most
entries indicated unhappiness as opposed to happiness, but it was also found that when energies
were focused on a challenging task, they were more upbeat. This demonstrates that the method still
can have beneficial uses in modern psychology.
Wundt’s scientific approach to psychology can be lauded. Firstly, its reliance on objectivity means
the scientific method is more than passive acceptance of facts. Additionally, because it relies on
determinism, we can establish causes of behaviour through empirical and replicable methods.
Finally, when theories no longer fit facts, they can be refined or abandoned, meaning that scientific
knowledge is self corrective. This combines to make Wundt’s ideas eminently preferable to a non-
empirical alternative.
Despite this, there are limitations to the approach. By concentrating on objectivity, psychological
situations often end up contrived and tell us little about natural behaviour. Furthermore, many
psychological processes are unobservable and cannot be measured accurately. Psychology is
therefore the most influential science, meaning there is a bigger gap between the data obtained and
the theories that explain it. Finally, some argue that not all behaviour can be explored through the
scientific method. For example, if determinism was false and behaviour did not occur according to its
laws, then prediction becomes impossible and the scientific method inappropriate.
Exam Style Questions
Explain Wundt’s contribution to development of psychology (4 marks, AO1)
Outline one criticism of this contribution (3 marks, AO1)
Explain and evaluate the concept of introspection (6 marks, AO1 + AO3)
The Behaviourist Approach
This approach focuses on observable events i.e. stimulus and responses, and the conditions under
which new responses to stimuli are learned. This takes place largely though conditioning, in which
learned associations between stimuli and response are formed. Because of this focus the approach is
sometimes referred to as learning theory.
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