Paper 3: Political Ideas
- Conservatism (Done)
- Liberalism (Done)
- Socialism (Done)
- Anarchism (Done)
Conservatism
Core ideas and principles;
Pragmatism:
Idea usually associated with conservative thinkers Edmund Burke and Michael
Oakeshott. In political terms, pragmatism rejects theory and ideology in favour of political
experience – the approach to society should be flexible, with decisions made on the basis of
what works. Oakeshott summarised that ‘to be a Conservative is to prefer the tried to the
untried’. Pragmatism also implies a flexible approach to politics that considers what is in the
best interests of the people, what is acceptable to the public and what will maintain social
stability and cohesion.
Conservatives’ preference for pragmatism is strongly linked to their view of human
rationality. They contend that humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning
to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world. As a result, Conservatives tend to
dismiss abstract ideas, theories and ideologies that claim to ‘explain’ or ‘improve’ human life
and development. Principles and ideas such as human rights, a classless society and equality
are dangerous because they can promote a radical re-ordering of society, often via
revolution, that leads to worse rather than better conditions. Therefore, they tend to avoid
a rigid ideological approach, preferring to act in a pragmatic way that emphasises caution,
moderation and a sense of historical continuity.
- Critics argue pragmatism reveals a lack of political principle and encourages
politicians to follow rather than lead public opinion. In practice, political behaviour
or action cannot be wholly separated from ideological or theoretical considerations.
For traditional conservatives, such as Edmund Burke, pragmatism was an essential element
in facilitating ‘natural’ or inevitable change within a state or society. This type of change, he
argued, should not be opposed because a state ‘without the means of some change is
without the means of its conservation’ – for the state to keep going, it would have to adapt
to some extent. Burke’s conservatism maintained that cautious pragmatism would bring
about necessary change peacefully, through evolution, whereas the pursuit of revolution
would lead to conflict and chaos. The key features of society – such as order, property,
tradition and established institutions – can only be preserved through a pragmatic policy
that takes into account shifting circumstances and recognises occasions when it is necessary
to change to conserve.
For one-nation conservatives, they hold similar attitudes to social reform. However, more
recently they have also adopted a pragmatic ‘middle-way’ approach to the economy that
combines market competition with government regulation. These conservatives argue that
this moderate economic course promotes growth and social harmony by encouraging
,wealth creation through private enterprise and generating the funding for state welfare
programmes.
Tradition:
Another important core value of conservatism is its attachment to tradition – the
institutions, customs and practices of a society that have developed over time. Originally,
the conservative justification for tradition had its roots in religion. Conservatives who
believed that the world was created by a divine being saw society’s institutions and
practices of society as ‘God-given’. Humans who attempt to alter these longstanding
arrangements are challenging the will of God and consequently are likely to undermine
society, rather than improve it.
Although religious fundamentalists still argue this for tradition, the argument was weakened
by Enlightenment thinking, with its emphasis on rationalism and anti-clericalism, and the
incorporation of obviously man-made innovations over time, such as representative
democracy. Nowadays, most conservative offer two secular arguments for the value of
tradition;
- Drawing on the ideas of Burke and Chesterton conservatives maintain that tradition
constitutes the accumulated wisdom of the past. According to this view, the
institutions, customs and practices of the past (such as the monarchy, the
constitution, the nuclear family and heterosexual marriage) have demonstrated
their value to earlier societies as they have proven to be ‘fit for purpose’ over time
and survived. For this reason, they should be preserved so that current and future
generations can also benefit from them. E.g. the monarchy has promoted a sense of
national unity and pride over the centuries. Thus tradition establishes continuity and
stability. This was Burke’s view when he famously stated that society was a
‘partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are
living, those who are dead and those who are to be born’. Each generation has a
solemn duty to safeguard and pass on the accumulated wisdom of tradition to the
next generation. This view of tradition clearly influences the conservative attitude to
change. They argue reform can only be justified if it evolves naturally in a peaceful,
gradual way in order to strengthen existing institutions, customs and practices. They
argue that by seeking to destroy all traditional political and social institutions, the
French and 1789 and the Bolsheviks in 1917 were cutting themselves off from their
past and paving the way for regimes more tyrannical in their nature.
- Secondly, the Conservatives champion tradition because, in their view, it provides
society and the individual with a strong sense of identity. Long-established
institutions, customs and practices are familiar and provide individuals with a
historically based sense of belonging to a particular society. Tradition fosters social
cohesion and security as it offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they
are, and establishes strong ties between people and their society. They claim that
any attempt to implement radical, wide-ranging changes will cut people off from the
‘traditional’ basis of society and inevitably lead to instability, anxiety and insecurity.
Such arguments were used by the Conservative opponents of the New Labour government’s
constitutional changes. They asserted that innovations such as devolved assemblies and
, Lords reform would undermine the constitutional stability of the UK create a mood of public
uncertainty.
Human Imperfection:
Conservatives have a pessimistic view of human nature, arguing that people are flawed
and incapable of reaching a state of perfection. Conservatism also asserts that human
nature is immutable (remains constant). Human imperfection has to be kept in check due to
the human capacity of evil. Following this, conservatives stress that;
- A tough stance on law and order is required, to deter criminal behaviour.
- As human nature cannot be transformed, foreign policy has to be based on national
security rather than ‘liberal’ notions of international co-operation and harmony.
- Human behaviour is competitive, so any successful political system will recognise
that self-interest is a more powerful motivator than altruism.
For conservatives, humans are flawed in three ways; psychologically, morally and
intellectually.
- Psychological: Humans are limited and dependent. People crave safety, familiarity
and the security of knowing their designated place in society. Such a view places a
premium on social order rather than liberty because order provides humans with
much needed security, predictability and stability. In contrast, liberty raises the
unsettling prospect of choice, change and uncertainty. For this reason, conservatives
have frequently endorsed Hobbes’ argument that social order has to come before
liberty.
- Moral: Humans are morally imperfect because they are naturally selfish and greedy.
Anti-social or criminal behaviour is due to basic human nature and cannot be
attributed to economic or social disadvantage. A robust law and order system that
imposes severe sanctions on such conduct is the only effective deterrent to combat
the moral imperfections of humans.
- Intellectual: The intellect and reasoning of humans are limited. Humans do not
possess the mental faculties to make sense of a complex world. Consequently,
conservatives reject overarching theories or ideologies that claim to explain or
predict the development of human society. Instead humans need to draw on
tradition, history and practical experience to understand their place in the world.
Organic society:
Given that conservatives regard humans as dependent and security-seeking, it
follows that people cannot exist separately from society as a whole or from social groups,
such as the family or the local community. Society and social groups provide individuals with
a sense of security and purpose, and prevent the development of anomie.
In turn, humans accept the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging to
society or social groups. For conservatives, this represents true freedom – the willing
acceptance of the value of social obligations and ties. If people did not acknowledge and act
on these responsibilities and bonds, human society would lack social cohesion and descend
into atomism.
These assumptions lead conservatives to endorse organicism – the idea of an organic society
or state. This perspective views society as a living organism, with all its parts working
