Lecture 6. Ideologies
+ Systems and regimes: democracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism
+ Violence and Politics
+ Authoritarianism and Democracy (LL)
Ideology – coherent vision of “reality” and how things are, why, of how and why they change, what they should be like and how
to get there. About human nature, the actual and proper organization of society and politics
“Coherent” does not involve truth, except for the speaker
Ideologues are always the others (ideologue – blind partisan of a particular ideology)
Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined the term Ideology during the French Revolution and subsequently used in public in 1796.
Ideologie according to Tracy is a new science of ideas from a literal idea-logy (Heywood, 2012).
Therefore, Political Ideologies are seen as commitments in order to change the political system (Roskins, et.al., 2012)
Ideology becomes a political weapon to condemn or criticize opposing arrays of ideas or belief system.
Beliefs are people’s assessments of reality and what they hold to be true.
Values are people’s ideas about right and wrong. Therefore, when beliefs and values are put together in a coherent system, they
form an ideology.
“Leftist” ideas in the modern context include ideologies that value individual freedom over government control, and these include
liberalism, social democracy, socialism and anarchism.
“Rightist” or “right wing” ideologies emphasize government power and authority, often at the expense of individual freedom, and
these include neoliberalism, conservatism and fascism.
“Centrist” ideas, meanwhile combine elements from both the left and the right and advocate more modern policies.
Religion and Ideology
Religious Fundamentalism - Religious fundamentalism is an unusual political ideology. The word fundamentalism is taken from
the Latin word fundamental, meaning—base. It is associated with inflexibility, dogmatism, authoritarianism, or worst violence.
Religious fundamentalism is characterized by a rejection of the distinction between politics and religion.
The following are the themes of religious fundamentalism: Religion as politics; The fundamental impulse; Anti-modernism;
Militancy
Totalitarian ideologies:
Totalitarianism - A form of ideal authoritarianism whereby pluralism is non-existent. Instead, people subscribe to a single
dominant ideology which would govern everyone’s way of thinking and speaking. TOTAL SYSTEM OF DOMINATION
- Question: Is a total exercise of power over state possible?
- Example: USSR; Nazi Germany, Italian Fascism
- Criteria (Carl Friedrich)
Official ideology covering all aspects of life
A unique and mass party
Quasi-monopoly in the hands of the party
A monopoly of mass communication means
Centralized control of the economy
Establishment of a terrorist police power
For Hannah Arendt, it is not regime but a self-destructive dynamic based on a dissolution of social structures
Communism – it is an extreme-wing ideology; economic, social, and political system seeking government ownership of the
means of production and serviced directed by a process of scientific administration and universal assent.
Based on revolutionary socialist teachings of Karl Marx
Characterized by collective ownership and a planned economy
Each person should work to their capability, and will receive according to their needs
Prefer revolution to reform
Communist theory holds that economics prevails over other historical factors in shaping the society
Belief that tools of production should be commonly owned; and promotion of comprehensive collectivization where the
economic production is the responsibility of collectives or communes
Fascism – movement that stands for outmoded, repressive social and political conditions rejecting democracy, repudiates
constitutionalism and stresses that all values arise from the state against which the individual has no rights
In the 1980s, an Italian word fascia was used which refers to a political group or band not until Benito Mussolini employed
the term to describe the armed paramilitary squads he formed during and after WW1
In fascism, authentic freedom is in subjugation to an authoritarian, totalitarian and omnipotent state, thus, rejecting equality
and replaces the principle of hierarchy to a supreme leader whose will is law
Main features: totalitarianism; nationalism; anti-liberalism; militarism and violence; leadership
,Nazism – ideology shaped by German racial superiority and the dangers of communism, stressing subordination of the individual
to the state and the necessity of strict obedience to leaders. Emphasizes inequality of individuals and “races” and the right of the
strong to rule the weak
Roots lay in the tradition of Prussian militarism and discipline and German Romanticism, which celebrated a mythic past and
proclaimed the rights of the exception individual over all rules and laws
Rejects liberalism, democracy, the rule of law, and human rights
Non-Totalitarian Ideologies
Liberalism (The left) - is derived from the Latin word “liber” which means “free men” in short, men who were neither serfs nor
slaves. A view that sees more need for change and improvement in social relations requiring governmental involvement, and
society must be free, if it is possible, free from government intervention. It supports promoting the individual welfare and
supporting civil rights and accepts peaceful political, social change within the existing political system.
It is a belief that man is generally good and that his ability to reason allows him to attain economic, political, and social progress.
Thus, the central theme of liberal ideology is a commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society in which man
can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment.
Set of Values and Beliefs of Liberalism:
Individualism – it is a belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body.
Freedom – the ability to think or act as one wishes, a capacity associated with the individual, a social group or nation. Belief
in the supreme importance of the individual leads naturally to a commitment to individual freedom. Individual liberty is the
supreme political value and the unifying principle of liberal ideology.
Reason – the power of reason gives human beings the capacity to take charge of their own lives and fashion their own
destinies.
Justice – it is a moral standard of fairness and impartiality. It is as well denotes giving what is due to each person.
Toleration – It is forbearance. Willingness to accept views or action with which one disagrees.
Neoliberalism - Posits that states are commonly interacting with each other and that they value cooperation as part of their own
interests. It further refers to the revival of economic liberalism. It is equated with a belief in market fundamentalism – the absolute
faith in the market, reflecting the belief that the market mechanism offers solutions to all economic and social problems.
Conservatism (The Right) - is a political philosophy that tends to support the status quo and advocates change only in moderation
upholding the value of tradition and seeks to preserve all that is good about the past. A point of view that emphasizes tradition and
established institutions and give greater attention to social entities than to individuals having the inclination to oppose any change
in political environment.
Socialism - is an economic and political doctrine advocating governmental ownership and direction of production and services
but which would retain existing institutions as the means of regulating them.
It is also viewed as an ideology which is opposed to capitalism, and tries to provide a more humane and socially valuable
substitute.
Cooperation is preferred to competition.
Socialism adheres to social equality which is the main way to attain social stability and cohesion.
“The supreme principle of socialism is that man takes precedence over things, life over property, and hence, work over
capital; that power follows creation, and not possession that man must not be governed by circumstances, but circumstances
must be governed by man.” - Erick Fromm
Distinctive ways of understanding socialism:
Socialism is seen as an economic model
Socialism as an instrument of the labor movement
Socialism as a political creed encompasses community, cooperation, equality, class politics and collective ownership
Other Ideologies: Anarchism; (anti)Racism; Multi-culturalism; (Post)Colonialism; (Post)Modernism; Feminism;
Environmentalism
Anarchism – “without rule”; an ideology defined by the central belief that political authority in all its forms, and especially in the
form of the state, is both evil and unnecessary.
Stateless societies or institutions based on non-hierarchical or free associations
Political authority is undesirable and unwanted
There should be no government of laws which prevents individuals from attaining personal autonomy
They place faith in natural order, spontaneity and social order
Junction between socialism and liberalism
,Feminism – concern with attainment of gender equality in the political, economic and social spheres of life. The primary focus is
the position of women in society
The basic idea of feminism is that women experience a poor state in society as a consequence of the patriarchy, male
domination of women, which has historically characterized all social relationships and that this disadvantage can and should
be overthrown.
Feminists contend that patriarchy continues to be manifested in the systematic deprivation of individual choices, political
power, economic opportunities, and intellectual recognition currently experienced by women
“Feminism is the struggle to end sexist oppression. Therefore, it is necessarily a struggle to eradicate the ideology of
domination that permeates Western culture on various levels, as well as commitment to reorganizing society so that the self-
development of people can take precedence over imperialism, economic expansion, and material desires.” - bell hooks,
Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center
Environmentalism – ideology focusing on the idea that environment is endangered and must be preserved through regulation and
lifestyle changes
Concern about natural environment and particularly about reducing environmental degradation that is more of a policy
orientation rather than an ideological stance
Lecture 7. Institutions and the workings
Institutions – are the organizations in a government that create, enforce, and apply laws; a set of formal rules (including
constitutions), informal norms, or shared understandings that constraint and prescribe political actors’ interactions with one
another
Institutions and performative politics:
Evidence since the early 1970s reveals a trend toward growing distrust of government institutions in a number of countries. While
this trend is evident, the interpretation of this phenomenon has proved far more controversial. One explanation focuses upon
public dissatisfaction with government performance.
1. Democracy:
Democracy – government of the people, by the people, for the people; whether the political system has the ability to ensure
equality, fairness, inclusion.
- What allowed establishment of large-scale democratic systems? – 1) Modern state formation; 2) The institutionalization
of parliamentary procedure
- Democratization involves: the gradual incorporation of the mass of citizens in the electoral system (suffrage); emergence
of political parties; institutionalization of opposition
- Types: parliamentary (UK); Presidential (USA); Semi-presidential (Russia)
Institutions of liberal democracy:
Three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial
Checks and balances – principle of government under which separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other
branches and are induced to share power.
The rule of law – the law is clear, publicized, stable and is applied evenly (no one is above the law)
Elections are made to become representativeƒdemoc
BUT within these parameters: institutions may vary considerably
Variations and examples at State Level:
1) Restrictive role of “heads of states”: parliamentary systems, presidential systems, intermediary arrangements
2) Modes of election (electoral systems): determining majorities as a general issue, majorities in the case of majority vote,
majorities in proportional representation, mixed arrangements, electorate / suffrage, right to vote and to be elected
3) Diversity of parliaments (ex. upper and lower chambers), executive branches, and judiciaries
Other state agencies:
1) Subordinate to the executive (e.g. armed and security forces, social security services)
2) Independent (e.g. central banks, courts of auditors)
Variations at Sub-state level:
1) Centralized – both executive and legislative power is concentrated centrally at the higher level as opposed to it being more
distributed at various lower-level governments (ex. Municipalities)
2) Unitary states – sovereign state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority
,3) (Con)Federal states – a compound form of governance that includes the central government, states, and municipalities having
different tasks and responsibilities to share power in a complex system of checks and balances. (Con) – union of
federations/states with some or most political power vested in central authority
Democratization in the Middle East:
- Transitology – analyzes transition from authoritarianism to democracy
It has been used by world powers to promote democracy worldwide (The USA)
Middle East is considered an exception resisting successive waves of democratization (4 th wave – still have to come)
Transitology often takes into account Islam as a factor explaining why democracy is late in the region
Transitology argues that there must of civil society and economic development for democracy to flourish, yet considers the
Middle East to not have a civil society (organizations that counterweight to state power)
- Question: Islamists dominate organized political opposition to authoritarian incumbents; do they endorse democratic
values? Is Islamism compatible with democracy?
Richard Norton: a civil society exists in the middle east through religious organizations and tribal groups. Islamists are also
civil society that is concerned with rights, channeling democratic demands (shura – consultation and ijma – consensus)
- Democracy without democrats (Ghassan Salame):
Democracy results form a necessary compromise between powerful social groups; it is a tool to regulate conflicts between
these groups
The Lebanese consociation – consociational democracy is often linked to societies that are deeply divided along ethnic and
religious lines where majoritarian system is unsuitable.
Main features; a large government coalition; autonomy of ethnic and religious groups; proportional system of vote; veto right
for the minority
In Lebanon, President of the Republic – Maronite; Prime Minister – Sunni; President of the Parliament – Shia
Ethnic Democracy (Samy Smooha)- democracy in which only the dominant ethnic group enjoys the totality of rights
2. Authoritarism:
Authoritarism - Notion to frame intermediary cases: not a democracy, but not totalitarist. The objective is to submit the
society, but not a deep transformation of the social order
- Features: no freedom of speech or opinion; central role of the army; propaganda and ideological impregnation; predatory;
accommodate with existing social structures; state strong but not total; does not seek to change the society
- Elements favoring it:
Cultural – no democratic tradition
Economic – protect privileges or profit of them
Conjunctural – actors dynamics; historical facts
Authoritarian institutions in liberal-democratic disguise:
- All over the world, nearly all political leaders claim to support the concept of democracy. Even authoritarian heads of
state often claim to preside over democratic political systems.
1) Turkey: Turkey has a democratic system of government, but in recent years, the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP)
has been accused of undermining democratic institutions and suppressing dissent. Critics argue that the government has
cracked down on the media, jailed journalists, and restricted civil liberties in an effort to consolidate power.
2) Hungary: Although Hungary has a multi-party system and holds regular elections, critics argue that the government under
Prime Minister Viktor Orban has taken steps to limit freedom of the press, suppress opposition voices, and consolidate power.
Some have described Orban's government as having an authoritarian streak, and there have been concerns about the country's
slide towards illiberalism.
3) Saudi Arabia (search of democratic legitimacy without democratization): In recent years, the Saudi government has
launched a series of ambitious social and economic reforms as part of its "Vision 2030" plan, which aims to modernize the
country and reduce its reliance on oil. While some of these reforms have been welcomed by observers, others have been
criticized as cosmetic changes designed to give the appearance of progress without changing the country's political system.
For example, the government has granted women the right to drive and allowed them to attend sporting events, but it
continues to limit freedom
4) of speech, restrict political opposition, and crackdown on dissent.
Arab Authoritarianism:
- Authoritarian republics ≠ monarchies
- The republics emerged as a result of military coups and wars
- Features of Arab Authortirarianism:
One party regime (Ba’ath Syria)
Socialist leanings connected to the USSR
Patrimonialism (Weber) – domination based on personal allegiances
, Wasta (patronage of clientelism) – informal routinizes favors between individuals who control unequal resources
Pretorian regime – central role of the army and of the security services (intelligence)
Corporatism – social interests reflecting positions in the socio-economic structures which are granted a monopoly over the
representation of the group in the society and in front of the state (state corporatism is top down, while societal corporatism is
bottom up)
BUT
Weak despotic power
Weak infrastructural power
weakness of the states in face of strong societies (Joel Migdal)
- Political Participation in authoritarian regimes:
Regimes have strategies to limit opposition: 1) ban political parties; 2) divide the opposition playing on ideological divides
(Islamism, Arab nationalism etc.); 3) coopt some opposition movements and incorporate them into authoritarian mechanisms;
4) maintain elected or appointed assemblies with limited or no legislative powers (majlis al-shura)
- Rents: rents coming from hydrocarbon and other natural resources account of authoritarianism – the rentier state is
defined by its fiscal autonomy from society incomes from natural resources rather than taxes fill its coffers in the
absence of taxation and thanks to the generous distribution of rents, rentier states do not need to grant the ciitzens
representation in order to generate consent
Economic liberalization in the Arab countries which only consolidated authoritarianism Liberalized Autocracies (Daniel
Brumberg) and Authoritarian Upgrading (Steven Heydemann)
Upgraded Authoritarianism in the Arab World:
- Involves reconfiguring authoritarian governance to accommodate and manage changing political, economic, and social
conditions.
- Main features: containment of civil society; management of opposition; selective economic reforms that favor the interests of
the incumbents; control of the new communication means; diversification of international links
- It is shaped by the concern of how to sustain authoritarian governance in an era of global democratization than in response to
US experiences in Iraq
What is emerging in the Arab world, therefore, is a hybrid form of authoritarianism. It combines triedand-true strategies of
the past—coercion, surveillance, patronage, corruption, and personalism—with innovations that reflect the determination of
authoritarian élites to respond aggressively to the triple threat of globalization, markets, and democratization
- Key features of Authoritarian Upgrading:
Appropriating and containing civil societies.
Managing Political contestations.
Capturing the benefits of selective economic reforms
Controlling new communications technologies
Diversifying international linkages
- Example: United Arab Emirates: The UAE government has pursued an ambitious program of economic and social
development in recent years, but it has also adopted measures to suppress dissent and opposition. The government has
arrested and imprisoned political activists and journalists, and has restricted freedom of speech and association. The
government has also implemented a sophisticated system of surveillance and censorship, and has used social media to
monitor and control public opinion.
Unrepented authoritarian rule:
- form of government in which there are no pretenses of democratic or participatory governance.
- the ruling regime exercises complete control over all aspects of society and maintains power through force, coercion, and
repression
- Merging of the three branches of government: the ruling regime exercises complete control over all aspects of society and
maintains power through force, coercion, and repression. There are no independent institutions, no free press, and no
meaningful opposition.
- Dual structures (parallel institutions) that allow tighter control over population (security apparatus; parallel economy;
paramilitary organizations; religious institutions)
- Example: Syria under the Assad regime, where the government exercises tight control over all aspects of society, including
the media, the internet, and civil society organizations. The regime has used violence and repression to suppress any
perceived threat to its authority, and has engaged in widespread human rights abuses, including the use of chemical weapons
and torture. The Assad regime maintains a parallel security apparatus, including the notorious intelligence agencies, which
operates outside of official government channels. The regime also controls a parallel economy, with businesses and industries
operated by regime insiders.
Monarchies in the Arab World:
- Middle East is the region with the highest number of monarchies, and these regimes are deemed particularly stable
