Unit 4c - International History, 1945-1991 (9389,9489)
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Age of Uncertainty 1919-33 A level History complete summary for passing AS level exam CIE 9489/ 9389
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Unit 4c - International History, 1945-1991 (9389,9489)
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CIE
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Cambridge International AS Level History International History, 1870-1945 Coursebook
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UNCERTAINTY 1919-33
• disintegrated empires
• Chaos and confusion
• Bolshevik revolution 1917
• Abdication of German emperor in 1918
• Woodrow Wilson = determined to meditate a fair and lasting peace
• other eu politicians determined to gain revenge = ensure security for their country
• US senate refusal to ratify the Treaty of Versailles = isolationist policy
• Russia under communist Bolsheviks => determined to spread communism
• Russia not invited to the Peace talks
The peace settlements of 1919-1920
• 14 points speech:
• - no more secret treaties and alliances between countries
• - freedom of the seas
• - free trade
• - reduction of armaments by all nations
• - the adjustment of colonial claims, taking into account the wishes of the populations concerned as
well as those of the colonial powers
• - Russia to be welcomed into the society of nations and all its land restored
• - the restoration of Belgian territory
• - the liberation of France - return of Alsace and Lorraine
• - readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality
• - independence and self government for the peoples of Austria-Hungary
• - the restoration of the Balkan nations + serbia to be given an access to the seas
• - self government for non Turkish peoples in the Turkish empire + free passage through the
Dardanelles for all nations
• - independence for Poland, access to the sea
• - League of Nations
• advantage for Germany when Bolshevik Russia ended its commitment to war under Lenin =
Germany no longer had to fight a two front war + gained land and resources => major offensive on
the western front
• = The treaty of Brest Litovsk March 3rd 1918
• Extremely harsh terms of the treaty on Russia - lost of vital territory of Poland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia, Finland (best farmland, raw materials, heavy industry) = 25% of its
population, 25% of its industry, 90% of its coal mines
Problems for the Paris peacemakers
• January 1919
• aim: to develop a Settlement to end the WW1 and prevent another such war
• Revolutions in Austria Hungary, Turkish and Russian empire
• Russia: civil war (whites x Reds)
• Threat of revolution in Germany ad France
• Council of four: Wilson, Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Orlando
• Italy Had little to no influence ==> big three
,• disagreement between Britain, France and the USA over how Germany should be treated
• Clemenceau: destroy DE economically and militarily - FR suffered during the WW1 - harsh terms,
"the tiger"
• Lloyd George: less severe settlement => Germany was a vital trade partner with Britain = wanted
Germany to recover. But won elections on the promise to make Germany pay!
• Wilson: lenient peace based on his 14 points. the USA did not suffer as much as the EU powers
during the WW1.
• Believed that imposing a harsh terms would cause resentment and future conflict
• Wilson had a very little understanding of the complexity of the problems in Europe in 1919
• Wilson lost elections in 1919 to Roosevelt - republican
The treaty of Versailles
• no defeated nation was invited to the Peace talks
• Germans expected a reasonable agreement based on the 14 points
• Germany signed the TOV on June 28th 1919
• Lost 70,000 square km of land with 7 million people
Land losses
• Alsace and Lorraine to France
• Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium
• Northern Schleswig to Denmark
• the Saar valley under administration of the League of Nations for 15 years -> plebiscite after
• Demilitarisation of Rhineland (security for the French)
• Some of the West Prussia to Poland => Polish corridor = access to the sea
• Port of Memel to Lithuania
• Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (gained German territory through the Brest Litovsk Treaty) =>
independent states
• Germany lost its African colonies => mandates under the LoN
• 100,000 troops max
• No tanks, military aircraft or submarines
• Max of 6 battleships
• Anschluss forbidden
• War guilt clause - blame for war => reparations of £6.6 billion (settled in 1921)
Treaties with the other defeated nations
• Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria
• Austria-Hungary - Treaty of St Germain 1919
• Independence and self-determination to the peoples of the former empire
• Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia
• Bulgaria - Treaty of Neuilly 1919
• Lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania
• Turkey - Treaty of Sevres 1920
• Lost territory to Greece and Italy
,• Mandates
• Dardanelles to be permanently open to all shipping
Reactions to the Paris peace settlement
• great resentment in Germany
• Germans were not allowed to attend the Peace talks -> 'diktat'
• The TOV not based on Wilson's 14 points
• intense political instability = 100,000 troops were too little to maintain law and order within
Germany, let alone if Germany was attacked + no other nation had intention to disarm = threat to
German security
• Mandates, which took over Germany's former possessions were effectively occupied by France,
Britain and South Africa
• Millions of Germans living under foreign rule (Poland and czechoslovakia)
• East Prussia separated from mainland Germany by the Polish corridor
• The War Guilt clause was unfair = complicated events led to the outbreak of war in 1914
• Reparations were too high - virtually impossible for them to repay them
France:
• Clemenceau hoped for harsher terms
• Germany's territorial losses were restricted to those areas it had. Gained as a result of previous
wars
• Germany ignored the 14 points when drawing up a treaty of Brest Litovsk with Russia, they should
not have expected to be treated according to 14 points then
• France felt that Germany was left strong enough to pose a threat to their security
• Russia lost its land to Germany under the Brest Litovsk treaty and it was no returned after the
armistice => self determination to the states
• Italy was humiliated - its territorial demands were ignored (previous promise by the allies when
she enters the war on their side)
'By inflicting harsh terms on Germany, the Treaty of Versailleswas both unfair and unjust.'
Agree
• The treaty was imposed on Germany without consultation, and was not based on Wilson's
Fourteen points
• Germany was forced to reduce its military capability at a time when no other country was
disarming - this could make it vulnerable to attack and cause further instability in Germany itself.
• Germany lost European territory, which was important both economically and militarily.
• The Polish Corridor effectively split Germany in two.
• Germany lost its overseas possessions in Africa. These could now be exploited by its European
rivals.
• Many German nationals were now living in other countries. In particular, union with Austria was
forbidden.
• Germany was forced to take all the blame for the First World War and was expected to pay
reparations, which were set at a level that was far too high to be practical.
Disagree
• Germany had imposed far more severe terms on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March
1918. Having ignored Wilson's 14 Points then, Germany had no right to expect better treatment in
1919.
, • In the interests of future peace, it was reasonable to prevent Germany being able to wage war
again. This was especially important for French security.
• Germany's losses were restricted to territories it had gained in previous wars. Germany's losses
were not as great as France would have wished.
• Having access to the sea was vital to ensure that Poland was economically viable.
• Germany had been a latecomer to the scramble for Africa, its African colonies were not especially
valuable.
• As a result of the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian, Turkish and Russian empires, many
nationalities were now living under foreign governments. This situation was not unique to Germans.
• Considerable damage had been done during the war, and it was reasonable to expect
compensation. Even when defeat in the war was inevitable, the Germans had caused damage to
French property such as coal mines.
How justified were German criticisms of theTreaty of Versailles?
In terms of ‘justified’, it could be argued that German representatives were not allowed to attend
the peace conference and simply had to accept terms which were imposed on them. The terms were
not based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points as Germany had expected. The restrictions imposed on
Germany’s armed forces might leave it vulnerable to attack, since it was clear that none of the
victorious nations intended to disarm, and make it difficult to ensure law and order in Germany itself
at a time of intense political instability. Although classed as mandates, Germany’s former African
colonies were effectively taken over by Britain, France and South Africa. Millions of people who were
‘German’ in terms of language and culture would now be living under foreign rule (e.g. in Poland and
Czechoslovakia). East Prussia was split from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor. The War
Guilt clause seemed harsh given the complicated events which led to WWI. The amount settled for
reparations seemed unreasonably high and beyond Germany’s capacity to pay.
In contrast, it could be argued that, having ignored Wilson’s Fourteen Points when imposing harsh
terms on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany had little right to expect them to form the
basis of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany’s territorial losses in Europe were restricted to those areas
which it had gained as a result of previous wars. Economically, Germany retained the potential to
revive as the strongest power in Europe. The terms were not as severe as Clemenceau had wished.
French desire for revenge and a guarantee of security against possible future German aggression had
been tempered by Wilson’s desire to ensure a fair and lasting peace and Britain’s desire for the
German economy (which provided
a significant market for British exports) to revive.
How far do you agree that the Paris peace settlement of 1919–20 was a ‘bad peace’?
It could be argued that the Paris peacemakers faced very difficult circumstances. Satisfying the
competing demands of the victorious nations was a virtually impossible task. Wilson’s desire to
create a lenient, fair and lasting peace was undermined by French desire for revenge and heavy
reparations to ensure that Germany could never again threaten France. Wilson, no longer in control
of the Senate, lacked the authority to speak on behalf of the American people. Indeed, the USA did
not ratify the treaties which emerged from Paris. The Treaties were heavily resented by Germany,
but also by France, Russia and Italy. France believed that the Treaty of Versailles left Germany strong
enough to rebuild for the future and again threaten France. Russia, not even invited to the peace
talks, had lost its former possessions to the newly created nation states. Italy felt frustrated and
humiliated, its claim to territory along the Adriatic coast, the guarantee of which had led to Italy’s
entry into the First World War on the side of the Allied Powers, having been ignored. Maintaining a
commitment to self-determination was not as simple as Wilson envisaged, leading to the creation of
successor states which were all to suffer from similar problems. In redrawing the map of Eastern
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