Assess the significance of the role of wider processes in reducing racial discrimination in
the USA in the years 1874 - 1974
This work will assess the importance of processes in helping reduce racial discrimination in the USA from 1874 to
1974. These processes will be compared with the actions of individuals such as Booker T Washington and Marcus
Garvey. Verney advocates that change due to political consciousness formed during WW2, which galvanised the Civil
Rights movement in the Cold War era. Its evidenced by "black soldiers returning to us after the war were unwilling to
accept the reimportation of old oppression." 1 In contrast Dierenfield and White argue that the reduction in racial
discrimination was because of black activists across the period. This is shown when they say, "African American
leaders have utilised their distinctive personal qualities to improve or eliminate the inferior caste system of their
people".2
Verney’s view focuses on the importance of the processes as they formed a climate which led to activism or a
reduction in discrimination from political, legal or social change. His view is centred on WW2 being a turning point.
Verney is a white British author conveying that he was never part of the hostile America environment. Verney’s book
"Black Civil Rights in America” was written in the 2000s, which affords him hindsight into the period and how
processes affected the time. Verney has a PhD in American studies which suggests that the book should be accurate
as he is well versed in the history of America, making his view more trustworthy. Verney is objective as he talks
about the achievements of individuals in conjunction with the climates created by the processes, which makes his
view more balanced.
Dierenfield and White’s view is that black male activists were more critical in helping reduce racial discrimination.
Their view centres on male activists such as Booker, T Washington, Marcus Garvey and Martin Luther King.
Dierenfield and White’s book “A history of African American Leadership” third edition was published in 2012, which
gives them hindsight of the time. At the time, Barack Obama was the first black president and there was a focus was
on Black individuals’ achievements which could have influenced Dierenfield and White’s view. Dierenfield and White
are both White American authors suggesting they might have seen racist attitudes and grown-up learning about
black activists during the Civil Rights movement. They limit themselves by not highlighting the combination of black
female activists, which means a full overview of all individuals who helped reduce discrimination is not given. Their
view is less objective as processes are not looked at in detail with the individuals making their argument less
balanced. Thirteen individuals are analysed which is a broad range, however this limits detail as some achievements
are not explored fully and furthermore, individuals such as Randolph are not in the book indicating that the scope
was limited.
Reconstruction
Primary source one is a political cartoon by Thomas Nast released on 24 th October 1874, which portrays the
experience of African Americans throughout the Reconstruction Era. The article was published in 1874, which is 11
years after the emancipation proclamation in 1863, and it highlights how the conditions for African Americans had
not improved since the years of emancipation. Thomas Nast was a prominent cartoon artist who “vigorously
supported the cause of the Union.”3 His cartoons such as “one less vote” usually criticised southern and racist
attitudes. His progressive stance of the time could be valuable as it depicts a realistic view from an activist, thus
highlighting liberal support for Civil Rights. However, it also could be overly exaggerated to suit Nast’s political
agenda. The political cartoon is very detailed with images that express the message of freedom leading to worse
conditions through discrimination. The cartoon links to processes as it highlights how the foundations of racial
discrimination were created between 1865 and 1877 as Jim Crow laws and black codes established segregation in
society, this is reinforced by the cartoon as it conveys how white people targeted African Americans. The Jim Crow
laws and black codes were both introduced to limit black labour and “effectively re-enslave them” 4. The cartoon
reinforces the message by using writings such as ‘worse than slavery’. The cartoon is used to inform the audience of
how severe the climate was for African Americans, especially in the south due to the tensions of the Civil War,
suggesting that the cartoon could be embellished to portray the conditions as worse.
1
Verney, K. (2000). Black civil rights in America. 1 stedn. New York: Routledge
2
Dierenfield, B and White, J (2012) A history of African American leadership. 3 rdedn. Harlow: Pearson education
3
Kuiper, K. (2007) Thomas Nast. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Nast [Accessed: 27th July 2019]
4
McConnell, T, Smith, A (2015) The Making of a superpower: the USA,1865-1975. 1 stedn. Cambridge: Cambridge university press
1
,The cartoon is trustworthy as it aligns with facts from the era, for instance, the “grandfather clause which excluded
people from voting.”5 Thomas Nast published his political cartoons in Harper’s Weekly which “took a moderate
editorial stance on the issue of slavery”6 This suggests that the intended audience was higher class Republicans in the
north, meaning the cartoon could be biased. The tone is critical of the south and slavery with emotive language and
images which show the KKK and White League threatening a black family. The cartoon highlights the harsh climate
for African Americans, which consequently meant black activists such as Fredrick Douglass did not have much impact
as de jure racism was very prevalent. Overall, the source is trustworthy as it is supported by evidence and is valuable
to the question as it shows the conditions and attitudes prevalent in the era towards Blacks. The primary source
refutes Derenfield’s view as it highlights how individuals were powerless to change the severe racism created from
previous years of slavery. Dierenfield and White overlook the environment individuals were working in, which limits
their credibility.
Gilded
Jim Crowism, lynching’s and the KKK affected African Americans in the gilded age. The “romanticised vision of the
KKK was celebrated in popular novels”7 such as the birth of a nation. Cases such as Williams vs Mississippi, 1898
ruled that “literacy tests for voting were constitutional” 8 which restricted black voting in the south. The Gilded Age
was a period of economic growth as American industrial production exceed Britain, Germany and France combined.
Corporate mergers from 1897 onwards led to a series of monopolies which excluded blacks. The economic change
meant more attention was on business rather than black rights. The gilded age was a period of continuity due to
racist attitudes which still existed and further legal change which encouraged segregation.
Individuals such as Booker, T Washington used his philosophy of accommodation to form political relations with
President Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft “used Washington as an advisor to racial matters.” 9 Washington’s
Atlanta Compromise Address raised him to national acclaim as he was the first blackman to speak at the
International Exposition in Atlanta. His speech focused on accommodation as he said that the South “have at all time
the sympathetic help of my race10”. This highlights how the climate hindered individuals due to the racist views
believed by the broader population. The Tuskegee Institute focused on teaching trades to blacks which could then
propel black labour in the economy, thus creating social mobilisation. The opportunities created by the Institute for
blacks were remarkable for the climate conveys the importance of Washington.
In summary, the Gilded Age was insignificant in reducing racial discrimination as it was a period of continuity from
the Reconstruction Era. Verney’s view on processes is disputed as the Gilded Age attitudes furthered racism as Jim
Crowism and segregation laws hindered blacks. Individuals are more important as shown by the achievements of
Washington, such as the Tuskegee Institute which helped blacks gain skills to enter the workforce and develop
economically therefore setting a precedent for change.
Progressive
The progressive era was a time of social reform which focused on working rights instead of black rights. Progressive
reformers promoted discriminatory policies during Woodrow Wilson’s presidency and a resurgent of the KKK started
due to his leniency on race issues. Wilson’s perceived endorsement of the film version of A Birth of a Nation which
portrayed KKK member as “Valiant saviours11", enabled racist attitudes. Furthermore, his cabinet became segregated
in some departments for the first time since 1963 which consequently meant William Trotter left his position as an
advisor on racial matters. The racist attitudes persevered with validation from the presidential level. The severity is
5
Paterson, D, Willoughby, D and Willoughby, S. (2001) Civil Rights in the USA, 1863-1980. 1 stedn. Harlow: Pearson Education
6
. Simkin, J. (2014). Harper's Weekly. Available at: https://spartacus-educational.com/USAharpers.html [Accessed: 28th July
2019]
7
Bryant, J (2002) Ku Klux Klan in the reconstruction era. Available at: https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-
archaeology/ku-klux-klan-reconstruction-era?amp [Accessed: 28th July 2019]
8
Verney, K (2000) Black Civil Rights in America. 1stedn. New York: Routledge
9
Verney, K (2000) Black Civil Rights in America. 1stedn. New York: Routledge
10
11
Clark, A (2019) How 'The Birth of a Nation' Revived the Ku Klux Klan. Available at:
https://www.history.com/news/kkk-birth-of-a-nation-film
2
, shown by “754 African Americans lynching’s between 1900-1909 12"conveying the violence towards blacks. Verney’s
view concerning the question is unsupported as the progressive era did not further reduce racial discrimination.
Verney’s view is limited on the Progressive era as he mainly focuses on the Reconstruction era rather than the 1915s
onwards, with little mention of the climate from the 1900s to 1915.
The fact that W.E.B Du Bois was a “political activist” 13 highlights his constant push for racial justice. In co-founding
the NAACP, Du Bois established a group which launched legal cases and produced a black periodical called Crisis
magazine which “sold 16,000 copies within a year 14”. The magazine, along with other newspapers such as 'Pittsburgh
Courier' spread anti lynching messages and celebrated black achievements. The NAACP pledged 'to promote equality
of rights and eradicate race prejudice’. This is conveyed by the victory in the first case launched by the NAACP
against an Oklahoma law that regulated voting by the grandfather clause. The case set a precedent for the
importance of legal advocacies. Du Bois was hindered by his confrontation approach, which was influenced by his
childhood experience in the north. The progress Du Bois envisaged was too advanced for the climate at the time.
Dierenfield and White substantiate their view as the NAACP successes reduced racial discrimination with the help of
W.E.B Du Bois.
Dierenfield’s and White’s view that Du Bois was more significant then wider process in reducing racial discrimination
is supported by evidence as the legal change caused by the NAACP and the spotlight put on lynching by Crisis
magazine proved useful. The Progressive-era stagnates, and the lack of focus on Black rights makes it unimportant in
terms of reducing racial discrimination. The perceived racism from Wilson validated extreme attitudes, thus
propitiating violence against blacks.
The Great Migration was significant from 1915 onwards as it led to the Harlem Renaissance, which promoted black
culture to the masses. The rapid industrialisation, mainly in the north led to significant urban growth with the south
needing less labour due to the boil weevil ruining crops. These economic factors, mixed with the resurgence of white
supremacy in the south, led to mass migration to the north. The impacts of the Great Migration North were African
Americans gaining rights as segregation became illegal and they were enfranchised.
The population of New York rose from “1.2 million in 1880 to 5.6 million in 1920”. 15 This increase caused competition
between African Americans and whites for employment and housing; consequently, racism increased. The formation
of ghettos led to the Harlem Renaissance during the 1920s, which helped in reducing racial discrimination as
talented black entertainers and entrepreneurs came to prominence, leading to jazz musicians such as Louis
Armstrong becoming famous. The Renaissance was significant as white people began to recognise the intellectual
contributions of black people; additionally, it challenged white people to be more aware of racism through literature
and arts. Verney’s view is supported as the Great Migration led to Individuals being celebrated during the Harlem
Renaissances and an emphasis on black culture.
In comparison, Marcus Garvey, a black activist was quite extreme in his views. Garveyism “combined the various
elements of black nationalism into a distinctive philosophy 16” which was embodied by the UNIA (Universal Negro
Improvement Association) his organisation set up in 1914 and his newspaper the Negro world. Marcus Garvey was
somewhat successful as the UNIA had 50,000 to 200,000 members in 700 branches which promoted black culture
and black employment. However, Garvey created the Black Star Line, which was meant to transport people to Africa,
but it ran out of money leading to a criminal investigation by the government. Garvey's extreme attitude also led to
discontent between activists such as W.E.B Du Bois as he was light-skinned, and Garvey had made comments such as
"Darker the better”.17
Overall, the process of the Great Migration led to a climate that allowed the Harlem Renaissance and black culture to
become prominent. Black culture was more accepted which was essential in reducing racial discrimination as it
contributed to the black consciousness. This led to the civil rights movement later, whereas Garvey had limited
12
" Verney. K (2000) Black Civil rights in America, 1 stedn. New York: Routledge
13
Dierenfield, B and White, J (2012) A History of African Americans leadership. 3 rdedn. Harlow: Pearson education
14
Dierenfield, B and White, J (2012) A History of African Americans leadership. 3 rdedn. Harlow: Pearson education
15
Verney, K (2000) Black Civil rights in America, 1 stedn. New York: Routledge
16
Dierenfield, B and White, J (2012) A history of African American leadership. 3 rdedn. Harlow: Pearson education
17
Kendi, I (2017) colourism as racism: Garvey, Du Bois and the other colour line. Available at: https://www.aaihs.org/colorism-
as-racism-garvey-du-bois-and-the-other-color-line/
3
