1. CHANGING POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Woodrow Wilson (13-21)
2. Warren Harding (21-23 died in office)
3. Calvin Coolidge (23-29)
4. Herbert Hoover (29-33)
5. FDR (33-44 died in office)
6. Harry Truman (44-53)
7. Dwight D. Eisenhower (53-61)
8. JFK (61-63 died in office)
9. LBJ (63-69)
10. Richard Nixon (69-74)
11. Gerald Ford (74-77)
12. Jimmy Carter (77-81)
13. Ronald Reagan (81-89)
14. George H.W. Bush (89-93)
Declaration of Independence 1776 – created a constitution (rules/systems that make a country work - the federal government)
PRESIDENT (leader) Congress (law makers) Supreme Court (law deciders)
Minimum 35, 4 years elected, Divided into house of No formal requirements - 9
electroroal college vote representatives & senate judges appointed by president
SEPERATION OF POWERS – Can check and balance one another – no one person with too much
- Congress is changing all the time (new every six years) – so it is difficult for a president to have a stable congress that
coincide with the presidents views.
- Senate re-election every two years means people can change their views (no longer agree with the president) & vote the
opposite party.
The Changing Political Environment (1917-33)
WW1 Impact
- Under Woodrow Wilson (despite campaigning to keep out) in 1917
- After several German attacks on US shipping & the discovery Germany was sounding out Mexico as an ally against US
Many felt involvement had been a mistake. Liked even less that Wilson tried to involve US more closely in international affairs
once the war was over.
Return to ‘normalcy’
- Harding promised ‘normalcy’. Blacks may have hoped this meant equality but WASPS understood it as life before WW1
- Post WW1 – short economic depression. (unemployment at 5 million by 1921 VS >1 million in 1919)
- Huge amounts of social discontent: strikes, protests, riots (Harding defined normalcy as ‘a stable, steady way of life’ – a shift
in focus back to the US)
- Government needed to: balance the books, reduce taxation, introduce tariffs, countrywide radio. Also needed a committee
to study ‘the race question’ & how to solve it.
Isolationism
- USA should be supportive but not ‘entangled’ with other nations / They had to focus on themselves and ‘Buy American’
- Introducing trade tariffs that favoured US businesses (BUT, tariffs on imports – Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act – people went
to consumerism& hire purchase as parts of the economy prospered)
- Not joining League of Nations, not setting up colonies, cutting back on the number of immigrants (1921 Emergency Quota &
its extensions)
- The 30s also had a number of Neutrality Acts that restricted the help US could give to countries if they went to war
BUT, US weren’t entirely Isolationist. They helped rebuild Europe economically & without the Great Depression may have
become Internationalist.
,President Changes
- Wilson the 2nd democrat since civil war. But people thought he took too big a part in government decisions making (US into
war despite campaigning to stay out & didn’t consult congress on promoting League of Nations)
- He drafted bills & took them to congress himself. An unwelcome change in presidential behaviour (close to breaking
separation of powers system)
Appeal of Republicanism
- Wilsons behaviour & WW1 aftermath led people to Republican ideals (even some Southern democrats)
- Harding voted for: ‘Less government in business and more business in government’
- He held laissez-faire (leave well alone) policies: government not to control or manage businesses or economy
- Republican – the party of big businesses (no controlled wages, hours, prices)
- Didn’t try to draft laws or drag USA into International politics
BUT, he did give corrupt friends positions of power (making administration look corrupt)
After Harding, republican Calvin Coolidge combined Laissez Faire & a dignity/morality that would restore faith in the party.
- Entered a period of recovery & prosperity, people felt republicanism may be working (the ‘boom’ economy had major flaws
– but people didn’t know this at the time)
- It was only when Hoover took over that people recognised growing problems (BUT his campaign encouraged the public the
republicans had eliminated poverty, restored economy & Democrats would destroy this)
Influences of the political landscape
1. The First Red Scare (1919/20)
1917 Bolshevik Revolution – the monarchy was toppled & replaced by a communist government (Soviet Union/USSR). It
sent shockwaves around the world & encouraged worldwide revolution (Hungary/Italy). People worried it would spread
to the US.
Strikes – 1919 3,000 strikes (1/4 workers) – conditions hadn’t improved post war
Steel Strike (1919) – 98% of union workers voted for strike, shut down half the steel industry BUT collapsed in January
Seattle General Strike (1919) – 5 day work stoppage by more than 65,000.
Bombings – Anarchist bombings (1919)
Series of bombings by anarchist followers of Luigi Galleani
- 16 bombs found in NY post office (addressed ‘enemies of revolution ‘)
- Bombs exploded in 8 cities, one targeted head of Judiciary A. Mitchell Palmer
- Anti-communist feeling escalated. People were sacked if suspected to hold left-wing ideologies. People suspected their
neighbours & worried for themselves.
- (Sacco & Vanzetti – Italian born anarchists) sentenced to death for an armed robbery & murder 1920 despite a full
confession later being given from someone else.
- KKK – targeted all people & groups considered ‘Un-American’ – pure Americanism
- 556 deported, Palmer’s prediction of a Red Revolution filed to occur. People/Media began to react to communism in a more
balanced way BUT the feeling didn’t leave
Rugged Individualism
Herbert Hoover gave ‘laissez faire’ a twist – Less on inaction & more on people taking responsibility for themselves
- In American Individualism (pamphlet he wrote 1922): outlined the things he would bring to the presidency, this being one
term.
- People who could look after themselves would make their own way in the world & prosper, realising the American dream
Rugged Individualism felt:
People were weakened by government support (even the poor) because it sapped their self-reliance.
Government should not interfere to help with jobs & homes or regulate hours or conditions (businesses to be free)
USA should isolate itself from other countries
USA should restrict immigration (rising unemployment – they made this worse)
The Great Depression
1929 – Underlying problems with the boom + out-of control share trading = The Wall Street Crash
,(Boom largely based on credit, banks lending & businesses/people borrowing too much. Farm produce going down in price
especially when they tried to produce more to make up for it. Consumer goods (radios) only bought once – piled up)
- This was the trigger of the Great Depression – Unemployment soared, Houses lost, Banks failed, Businesses failed
- Because post WW1 depression lasted 18 months, Republicans had support the economy would right itself out far quicker than
it did (held back to intervene)
Decline of Republicanism
Hoover set up: Federal Farm Board 1929 – those who found it hard to sell goods
June 1930: Increases existing tariffs on foreign imports (retaliation from foreign markets)
- Hoover realised laissez-faire wasn’t working (too late). He thought the answer was private charities (by businesses &
wealthy) to help people on a local/personal level (too much volunteerism & ‘self-help’)
1930: President’s Emergency Committee for Unemployment - temporary to find work projects & to persuade
businesses to create more jobs (it was overwhelmed)
- In the end, he realised federal intervention was needed. Federal help to state for work projects & then money to fund some.
But this too fell short for what was needed.
- Reluctantly went to Congress to pass laws for direct federal help (an unwelcome change of direction for some)
- Congress rejected many & those passed put the government in debt
- Last year of his presidency: government spent 5 thousand mn & received 2 thousand mn
- His attempt to change to welfare provisions was TOO LITTLE, TOO LATE (many blamed him for the crisis)
They named huge shanty towns of homeless people that sprang around the country after him (Hoovervilles)
The Bonus Army (1924)
Bonus payment calculated on WW1 soldier’s years of service
- They were paid $50 initially, the rest promised 1945
- By 1932, many veterans were homeless/unemployed (demanded pay early & were refused)
- June 1932: March on Washington (150,000-200,000) – camped on sites around the city (one in sight of the White House).
The police attempted to break it up (violence on both sides), 28 th July troops sent in with tear gas, cavalry & tanks.
The camps & people were painted as communist agitators & criminals to make them appear bad– Hoover lost significant
popularity
A changing mood
- Since 1921 Republican majority had been in both houses of congress BUT as they failed to cure the depression, people
began to vote democrat
- 1931 – Democrats were majority in House of Representatives & gaining in Senate
- Hoover became increasingly unpopular with voters (stating they were the poor mans party - they weren’t) & even with
Republicans who disliked his dealing with the Depression.
1932 Presidential Election Campaign: Democratic opponent FDR offered people a ‘New Deal’
- He promised a new attitude in government & ‘Happy Days were here again’
- Excellent communicator & successful governor of NY
- His campaign pointed to Hoovers as being led by the new four horseman of the apocalypse “Destruction, Despair, Delay &
Doubt”
- More than 40 million people voted (largest ever) & Hoover only won 6 states
- 1936: Republicans only won 2 states
The Changing Political Environment (1933 - 45)
Neal Deal Thinking
- Asked congress for special powers to deal with the economic situation (government action)
- He promised a balanced federal budget BUT once in power felt providing help was more important (even if it meant debt)
- Insisted the government was responsible for the welfare of people (not so different from the END of Hoover’s presidency)
BUT, New deal agencies relief was the bare minimum & the tests to qualify were demeaning (people chose not to take them)
- Insisted that rapid, national action was important (federal government took over some policy making that would normally
be done in individual states – FDR was allowed this as he insisted it was temporary)
, - Series of ‘Alphabet Agencies’ set up:
National Recovery Administration (NRA) – set up & enforced codes of practice for businesses (minimum wage, working
hours) , could refuse BUT public encouraged to support businesses that displayed NRA symbol (blue eagle)
Agricultural Adjustment Agency (AAA) –Regulated the major crops (wheat, cotton, milk). It bought up surplus crops &
subsidised farers to grow less of crops tat were being overproduced
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – public works project that promoted environmental conservation – created work for
2.5million
There were agencies to provide work & help different sections of society. Help on a state-by-state basis.
Presidency Change
- Roosevelt was confident, charming & persuasive (a great communicator – determined to restore public faith)
- Inaugural Speech: ‘The only thing we have to fear is fear itself’
- He understood how to manipulate congress, pushed through so many laws (banking, taxation, economic) in first 100 days
Increasing Importance of presidency
- Roosevelt created a significant white house staff compared to Hoover & when Congress wasn’t helpful he used executive
orders (deigned for emergencies) to pass laws through
- He was more concerned with general policy than detail; he didn’t understand economic theory well (policies created
inflation or cancelled each other out)
- BUT, he understood well how to manage people (he started radiobroadcasts known as ‘fireside chats’ – personal level
where he explained policies)
- He understood the power of the media & the need for their support. He held ‘off the record’ press meetings twice a week
with selected reporters at the White House
- Roosevelt elected for four terms (clearly popular)
BUT not all people liked him. Wealthier people disliked his policies. Republicans disliked his enlarging powers. In the 1940
campaign some opponents compared him to dictators like Hitler. From ’36, the Supreme Court began to rule some agencies
unconstitutional. (NRA & AAA).
- It was now too hard to push through laws, so he packed the court with his supporters. He proposed adding a new judge for
every judge over 70 (6/9). An extreme violation of the separation of powers
Roosevelt’s Legacy
- Roosevelt died in ’45 & Truman was left with the expectation to be involved in policy & legislation
- White house was expected to tell media & public about policy
- Government & president now responsible for welfare throughout the country (post presidents presented welfare packages
similarly – ‘Fair Deal’ ‘New Frontier’
BUT, the separation of powers still held (still needed approval from congress for laws despite involvement). Personality of the
president still a major factor too.
Impact of WW2 (hauled US from depression)
- Used a ‘fireside chat’ to tell public the US would remain neutral (concerns from WW1) BUT said he could not ask everyone
to be neutral (implied to young men they could fight without being punished)
- He geared up production for war anyhow (supplying the allies). Goods supplied (e.g. to Britain) on a ‘cash and carry’ basis –
credit for war goods was forbidden by Neutrality Acts
This production boosted industry & farming & decreased unemployment.
- 1940: Europe overrun & Britain fighting alone – Could no longer pay for war supplies so Roosevelt set up ‘Lend-Lease
Scheme’ 1941 (knew congress wouldn’t give approval over neutrality acts) to borrow and return ($51bn worth)
- 8th December 1941: US enter war after Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbour
- Unemployment declined (men at war/women took jobs) & the economy was good (wages high, profits at $28mn in 1943)
BUT, human cost was high (400,000 dead, 600,000 injured/captured)
LEADERSHIP STYLES Changing – (45-72)
1. Harry S Truman
Personality: Not charismatic, Not very confident, Could be overwhelmed by importance of job (makes mistakes), Phrase ‘to err
is Truman’
