HISTORY – THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE OF WARFARE REVISION
DEPTH ONE: Britain & The French Wars
INTRO: B+F allies post world wars, but before more often rivals than friends
Until 16th c – English monarchs held territory in France
Late 18th c – competing for colonies, trade & diplomatic influence in Europe
(France aided America in their war of independence from British rule)
Relative Strengths
- French population twice that of Britain’s - Britain 2nd most urbanised country in Europe
- More modern economy, fast-developing Industrial revolution
BUT - Transformed agriculture, Transformed manufacturing
Pre-revolutionary France = creaking economy, - Overseas expanding empires
less prepared BUT powerful Navy - Sophisticated financial system to back a war effort
Managing national debt through borrowing & selling gov. stocks = finance larger scale military expenditure
Income Tax (1798)
Coalitions – over French wars, gave £50mn to its allies & loaned Austria a further £4.6mn
It’s financial strength had funded RN in conflicts – e.g. Seven Years’ War against France
Navy protected maritime trade & colonies Inc. Canada & parts of India taken from the French
On Land & Sea
RN
- Supported overseas campaigns (India/Peninsular war)
- Blockaded French ports to strange trade / protected British commerce
- Fleet in home waters meant protection from invasion (no full scale landing attempted) (Wales 1797 – met by British militia
& surrounded after 2 days)
- Britain’s RN outnumbered the French
Horatio Nelson – aggressive / iconic commander, influenced French naval strategy (killed at Trafalgar – but command of the seas
was assured)
Land campaigns
- Pre French wars - Army in a poor state, defeated in America, low morale
- Much smaller than conscript French army
- Yet willing to fight Peripheral campaigns – e.g. Peninsular war
Even after the Russian disaster he could muster 1 million men. BUT, left the Peninsular battles to generals who were
outmatched by Wellington. In the final overthrow, Britain was a part of a larger coalition (Russians/Prussians/Austrians) &
had victory at Waterloo.
The Home Front
- Contrasting impact on British economy: Industry grew in sectors (coal, iron, textiles)
- Cotton exports rose (even to France), Britain were supplying French with cloth for uniforms
- Continental system trading embargoes unsuccessful – smuggling rife
- But with income tax, rose food prices & unemployment *jobless men joined army*
Farmers sold home-produced wheat at high prices, reliance on high prices leading to protectionist Corn Laws of 1815 (ban
cheap imports). Britain’s agricultural sector had been modernised
Literature: Showed contrasting effects of war: Jane Austen novels (Glamour/honour) VS Charlotte Bronte’s Shirley (impact of
war to a cloth-making community)
,SUCCESS OF FRENCH WARS - THE ROLE OF WELLINGTON?
“[Our soldiers] are the very scum of the earth and it really is wonderful that we should have made them into the fine fellow that
they are”
Wellington’s Background: Wellington’s Character:
- Arthur Wellesley, born in Ireland 1769 - As commander, known for attention to detail
- Joined army 1787 & purchased commissions - Precisely planning & picking battle locations that gave
- Proved a capable solider in combat In Flanders him advantage
- Served in India, brother promoted to major - Alienated the local population (should be supplied from
general Britain by RN)
- Given command of BEF in 1808 in Portugal - Rather aloof & a strict disciplinarian
- 1809 became Viscount Wellington
Prelude to Peninsular War
- Napoleon began a new campaign in Europe in 1805. Swiftly defeated Austria, Russia, Prussia & considered Britain.
- Nelson’s victory at Trafalgar defeated hopes of seaborne invasion, tried to strangle Britain's economy with the “Continental
System”. Hoped blockade would spark unrest in Britain & force peace
BUT The Portuguese could not comply – economic ruin
- Napoleon occupied Iberian Peninsula in 1809, claiming “Above all Portugal must be wrestled from the influence of England”.
BUT, he angered them with brother Joseph in charge (nepotism) - quickly dubbed Joseph ‘The Intruder King’.
- French forces moved into Portugal to stop the British using the ports. Portugal was Britain’s oldest ally
- French were vulnerable- this was the best opportunity for the British to attack on land. 9,000 British soldiers went to the
Iberian Peninsula to exploit Joseph’s failures.
Initial successes & setbacks
Arrive in Portugal July 1808 (British army, 5,000 Portuguese + extra troops commanded by Sir John Moore)
1 year of active
French defeated at Vimeiro (August) service /No
BUT, Wellington now outranked – New commander in chief *Sir Hew Dalrymple* & *Sir Harry Burrard* experience
Wellington pleads to pursue the beaten French but…
Dalrymple agrees to Convention of Sintra – French troops to be evacuated in British ships & keep their loot
Wellington annoyed, returns to Britain
Official enquiry launched – Exonerated all 3 commanders
Wellington returns April 1809 – Full command
Had been left with Moore during enquiry
- Napoleon replaced Joseph / defeated Spanish & entered Madrid
- Moore outnumbered, lingered too long – forced to retreat to Corunna for evacuation
- Reached port on 11th January , ships took 4 more days – so French attacked
Moore shot & killed ---- CORUNNA A SETBACK (troops demoralised/starved)
Wellingtons tactics
Napoleon back in Paris – September 1809
Wellingtons campaign – invasion/retreat, sieges/attrition – against experienced French generals
Explaining his success:
Iberian geography, local allies (Portugese/Spanish & guerrillas), tactics & personality
To avoid defeat – often chose rearguard action (small force remains/main army withdraws)
Train to fire volleys & reload rapidly (Brown Bess – 4 a minute from an expert)
Reverse hill slope tactic (forcing enemy up hill without protection / easy firing)
Wellington’s supply line – secure from Lisbon (with RN support) VS French = long across rugged terrain
Wellington’s firepower – Volleyfire (successful against French shock attack)
,Talavera & Torres Vedras
Battle of Talavera – September 1809
Spanish ill equipped / let down by leaders (led by General Cuesta – who failed to appear)
Wellington unable to fully exploit narrow victory
Portugal more reliable ally
Had Viscount Beresford retrain Portuguese – 1810 integrated to own army
French casualties = 7,300. Wellesley's losses = 5,400 (25% of his entire force and, with a fresh army under Soult threatening
to cut his lines of communication, compelled to withdraw his army towards Portugal)
ROLE OF NELSON – BRITAIN’S NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE
To protect supply lines, Wellington built massive fortification works (across a peninsula north of Lisbon)
“Lines of Torres Vedras”
Would be secure behind them , be supplied by the sea
Local people had fled to Lisbon – leaving deserted villages = Wellington “Scorched Earth” Policy
French were harassed by guerrillas / cold & hungry soldiers (British fine behind these lines)
Cracked down on slackness, disciplining solders
Fuentes De Onoro
1811 – Wellington had moved into Spain – from Portugal to besiege Almeida
French (commander Massena) tried to relieve it
3rd May – French attacked them at Fuentes De Onoro
Lasted 3 days
Near disaster: Untried 7th division in open / Light division performed a withdrawal
(using square formation) – soldiers face outwards / attack from all sides
Post Battle, French slipped most troops out (annoyed Wellington – no success unless he led)
BUT, Massena had failed & Wellington had done good
Wellington on the Offensive
1812 – Napoleon invades Russia with ½ million men
He pulls out veteran troops from Spain / Britain not outnumbered finally / Wellington could enforce an aggressive approach
Ciudad Rodrigo & Badajoz
Attacked the border fortresses here
Weeks of siege work – artillery to blast breaches / hand-to-hand fighting
Aftermath of victory as violent as assault – townspeople killed, raped, robbed
Thomas Picton – helped restore disciples. Looters flogged not hanged
Wellington showed clemency, had seen & cried at huge losses (earning respect)
Salamanca & Victoria
Wellington days without sleeps / insisted on making orders in person / constantly on the saddle / slept in his clothes
“Cheerfulness or gloom at dinner depended on what news Wellington had received” = Captain Thomas Browne
Battle of Salamanca
“Wellington master of manoeuvres and concealment” – French general
Used hills to shield his army & took French by surprise
French were scattered / had heavy losses
- Took Madrid, Wellington a national hero
(He remained critical of unfamiliar officers sent out & further terrorising civilians)
- Summer 1813 – French fallen back to Victoria, allies attacked front & rear (stopping retreat)
- This French defeat finished the war in Spain – French retreated
, - 1814 – Wellington invades Southern France
The Hundred Days
Invaded – Napoleon forced to abdicate in April / In exile – Island of Elba
Newly restored
King Louis XV111
February 1815 – Napoleon escapes, enters France with 600 soldiers fled to England
Troops sent to arrest him, joined him (& Marshal Ney & More)
Entered Paris as emperor again
European powers declared war – Wellington began new campaign
- Led Western coalition army
- Planned to cooperate with Prussians in the east (Blucher)
- Russians & Austrians not ready to join
- Wellington’s plan = “to be guided by circumstances”
- Didn’t have many Peninsular veterans / untrusting of Belgian & Dutch (“give me enough of that” –
pointing to British infantry)
June 1815, 2 Battles: Quatre Bras & Ligny
Attacked at Quatre Bras by Ney, but held position
At Ligny, Prussians lost to Napoleon (pulled back) / Wellington also withdrew
The Battle of Waterloo
18th June 1815
“The nearest run thing you ever saw in your life” – Wellington
Battlefield – 4 miles across with 3 strong points (inc. Chateau at Hougomount)
Wellington placed men in all three
Allies. 68, guns (+ Blucher support) VS. 72,
Napoleon’s problems morning of the battle:
Unwell / unable to sit for long
Attacking uphill
Ground was waterlogged (delays in moving – wait until 11am)
- French began with assault on Hougomount / then infantry attack – BOTH REPULSED
- French heavy fire then caused some Dutch & Belgian units to flee
TIDE TURNS
- Wellington on the move / Napoleon static, Napoleon leaves ill & Ney in command
- Wellington moves troops out of artillery reach / Ney thinks they are retreating, sends ALL cavalry in pursuit
- Form squares, volley fire horsemen / Napoleon returns, news that Prussians are about to join
Marshal Grouchy (30,000 men) supposed to prevent this & failed
- Napoleon’s final move = committed his elite guards
Young guard to hold Prussians / Old guard veterans to break British line
Marched uphill, under heavy fire, wavered & British broke them
Could see them running / Prussians arriving
French army disintegrated – Fleeing / surrendering
Napoleon escaped to Paris – HE HAD LOST
Wellington – The General
Returned a hero (and a political career)
