Summary
Summary A2 SOCIOLOGY RELIGION NOTES
- Module
- Unit 6 - Religion
- Institution
- CIE
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Defining religion1. A set of beliefs that includes a 'God' or a supernatural entity. -polytheistic (Hinduism and Paganism),
monotheistic (Abrahamic religions) or non-theistic (Buddhism, Daoism).
2. A set of practices including collective behavior such as prayer, communal worship, exorcism (Roman
Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Churches), baptism for the dead, and marriages and funerals
performed in a certain way.
3. Some form of organisation that allows practices and beliefs to be collectively expressed.
Religion is diverse and difficult to define because McGuire 2002 suggests that religion has a dual character -
it is both individual and social. Individually there's various ways to be religious. Socially, religion performs
certain functions for society. These are: 1. socialisation into a range of moral beliefs and values 2. social
solidarity 3. social control.
Definition of religion must not narrow down to one particular characteristic such as beliefs, practices or
organisational forms. Religion's various aspects are all inter-linked.
Inclusive approach
Religion is not defined as its contents, rather as its effects/functions. Durkheim 1912 - religion fulfils two
necessary functions.
Social solidarity (sense of belonging) due to shared beliefs and values. Moral codes shared, e.g Ten
Commandments of Christianity.
Social integration: shared practices and experiences such as religious services and ceremonies help
integrate individuals into society through social solidarity.
The focus on function means the content of religious beliefs is unimportant. Religions are not distinguished
based on content. Importance is placed on the way that people act in specific, collective ways and that they
hold certain beliefs that influence their behavior. Inclusive approaches understand religion by seeing it as
belief system or ideology based on faith: the uncritical and unconditional acceptance of a particular set of
beliefs. Blasi 1998 - definitions develop through people's own behavior.
The inclusive approach prevents the identification of the aspects of behavior that are uniquely religious.
Religious-like behaviours, e.g sports events appear no different from religion.
Exclusive approach
The exclusive approach defines religion as it has been conventionally seen: - belief in a God or the
supernatural - behaviour such as prayer, collective worship and ceremonies.
This definition excludes 'quasi-religious' behavior that does not strictly follow conventional religions but
serves a similar function to religion. It defines religion substantively and distinguishes religious beliefs
qualitatively. Religions have essential characteristics:
The sacred that is often represented through objects.
Moral codes with sacred origins
Communication with the supernatural
Luckmann 1967 argues that religion is a unique belief system because it explains the individual's place in this
world, provides a sense of moral and political order, and answers existential questions. Substantive
definitions make it possible to measure levels of religious behavior in society.
However, critics question whether religion has any unique and exclusive features. This definition seems to be
merely defining conventional religions. A substantive definition of religion means that organisations may use
it to 'sell' religious experience, and a narrow definition excludes non-mainstream religions such Scientology
which has no sacred objects/symbols.
Perspectives on religion
Functionalism
,Traditional functionalism takes an inclusive approach. It focuses on understanding how religion functions to
create, promote and maintain cultural values that provide the moral basis for social order. Cultural
institutions (including education and media) create and maintain order and continuity by promoting and
supporting a collective conscience - a shared set of beliefs, values and meanings that unify a population
through an individual sense of 'collective personality'.
Durkheim 1912 - society needs a collective conscience promoted at regular intervals through gatherings and
ceremonies. Social integration is therefore an important function of religion, particularly in pre-modern
tribal societies. The development of social solidarity is based on practical religious mechanisms such as
collective ceremonies and services. For Durkheim, the key to understanding religion is not its ideological
content but its ideological effect. Durkheim believes that religion is a worship of the society, as religion is
given sacred significance by society itself.
Alpert 1939 - 4 main functions of religion.
1. Discipline: following a set of religious moral rules and codes.
2. Cohesion: putting into practice their shared norms, values and experiences thereby reinforcing social
solidarity. Haviland et al 2005 - social significance of different religious rituals and rites. Rituals such as
marriages and funerals mark important transitions of life. Intensification rites mark group occasions
and involve confirmation and affirmation of common values. Religious ceremonies and festivals have
an integration function. Durkheim claimed that religious symbols reflected a significant distinction
between the sacred and the profane. Their function was simply to develop shared values - the
fundamental things on which people agreed and bound upon.
3. Vitalisation: people binding together based on identity and revitalisation (social continuity
throughout generations). Significant meaning assigned to shared experiences.
4. Euphony (harmony): religious harmony in times of crisis. Religion's euphonic functions expressed in
1. tension management - Parsons 1937 - religious rituals surrounding death ease traumatic situations
by providing structure that permits and guides towards certain social actions. Farley 1990 - religion
provides important psychological support in personal crisis. 2. meaning - Malinowski 1926 - religion
provides answers to questions of death and life's purpose. Thompson 1986 - religion offers
explanations for unexplainable events.
Social stability
Religion as a conservative social force that promotes social solidarity.
Bental 2004 - for society to exist, a strong attachment to society must be created.
As a cultural institution, religion is an important source of collective norms and values. In modern societies,
cultural institutions have neither the power nor the authority to take over religion's functional role.
Religion promotes and maintains collective conscience in 3 ways;
Through moral codes
Through participation in collective ceremonies society is given substance/qualities/attributes
Participation in religious rituals, Bental suggests, brings out 'collective effervescence'
Religion can have a monopoly on cultural power and influence. In culturally diverse, modern societies,
religion no longer has a 'monopoly of faith' and this has been referred to as the 'problem of secularisation'.
Bellah 1967 - secular societies develop civil religions - a set of fundamental beliefs shared by the majority
in society.
Civil religion; ideas and practices that while not overtly religious in content, perform the same function as
religious organisations in society.
Societies cannot exist without a communal sense of self. Civil religions can be secular or with the notion of
God.
Neo-functionalism
, The ideas of traditional functionalist approach can be applied in contemporary societies however,
neo-functionalists note that many modern societies, notably Europe and North America do not participate in
collective religious ceremonies and services, apart from weddings and funerals. Societies are now more
culturally diverse. The functions have evolved in post-modern society. Religion's functions now defined in
terms of impact on some groups or individuals rather than whole societies. Kung 1990 argues that functions
of religion are now more closely related to questions of personal identity. Gans 1971 argues that few
phenomena are wholly functional or dysfunctional and that costs and benefits incur on different groups of
the same phenomena. Religious organisations can confer benefits to certain groups by defining who they are,
promoting clear guidelines and by satisfying social, psychological and spiritual needs.
Neo-functionalism also emphasises dysfunction caused by religion. Bruce 1995 argued that religion as
functional institute for social solidarity is emphasised however, religion as a dividing force remains
understated.
The small scale functionality of religion is expressed in terms of religion as a mechanism for social change.
Criticisms of neo-functionalist approach focus on methodology. Functionality of religion cannot be
operationalised. How do we know if it is functional?
Functionalism also focuses on the effects of religion. The function of religion is considered to be collective
behavior, therefore any form of collective behavior can be used to justify functionalist view. If collective
behavior in the form of religious observance and practice is present, then this is evidence of the function of
religion. If religious practices are on a decline then the explanation is that other forms of collective behavior
have taken over the role of religion.
Social change
Cultural sub-systems have a degree of autonomy (rather than being wholly inter-related) because it involves
institutions whose primary function is socialisation and the creation/propagation of cultural values. Cultural
institutes have the potential to promote change. Alexander 1985 - many religions have theories of past,
present and future, these are not just concerned with stability and order but also with change.
Wessinger 2012 - the idea of change is found in millenarian movements. This involves catastrophic
millenarianism (reform and destruction of current world order) or progressive millenarianism (working
under divine guidance or a superhuman to create millennial kingdom).
Millenarian movements: religious movements believing that God will intervene to create a form of collective
salvation.
Change can be transformative or transitional.
Neo-functionalists characterise modern societies as being in a state of moving equilibrium. They are
constantly adjusting to maintain social stability. Religion's structural role means it is more likely to inhibit
than promote large-scale social transformations.
Marxism
Marxists see the role of religion as promoting a consensus that ultimately benefits social class. They see it
based on its ideological purpose. Marxist approach is exclusive and focused on the qualitative features of
religion. Religion is seen as an ideology with a metanarrative of explaining everything. Its role is to represent
the world in ways that reflect and support the existing social order. Marx 1844 believed that religion was an
oppressive social force that operated in hugely unequal capitalist societies, such as UK, France, and Germany
in the 19th century. The poverty-ridden are forced to accept their situation. Religion causes a lack of
questioning and challenging the ruling class. Religion is theorised as a source of social control. The
ideological message was for everyone to accept the world it is. Its purpose was to stifle conflict.
Religion was an efficient form of social control because it helped uphold the status quo (beyond the power
of people to change), legitimise economic exploitation (acceptance of the world as it is), and justify poverty
(poverty was portrayed as a virtue to be endured without complaint).
Marx - opiate of the masses - 'dulled the pain of oppression' through promises of eternal life (Christianity)
and reincarnation into a higher social caste (Hinduism). He perceived religion as a form of false
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