SOCIOLOGY NOTES
MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
KEY FEATURES
➢ It is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology; a MACRO-LEVEL/ TOP-
DOWN THEORY that looks at society as a whole. Functionalists see society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote and sustain stability and
harmony.
Biological and mechanical analogies are often used to demonstrate and explain the
theory. The English sociologist, Herbert Spencer compared society to a human body.
Just as the different parts of the human body function interdependently to help the
entire organism survive, each aspect and structure of society is interrelated and co-
dependent. Different systems such as the educational, healthcare, military, plus
institutions such as schools, prisons, police stations, hospitals, even the church and
the family were organized and created to serve different needs. They function to keep
society going; in its present form preferably.
Robert K. Merton argued that people in general do not understand all the functions of social structure.
Manifest functions are the recognized, obvious and intended consequences, whereas latent
functions are consequences that are unrecognized, hidden and less intended or unintended.
Examples:
The obvious function of the higher educational system is to provide young people with the
information and skills they need to perform a job, to prepare them for their future careers.
Although less acknowledged, colleges and universities also operate as ‘marriage brokers’;
bringing people of similar social backgrounds together plus they keep millions of young adults
out of the labour market, where many of them would probably not find jobs. Also, colleges
and universities help stimulate economy. They help people to get degrees which will get them
better paid jobs and the more money they earn, the more they spend…
Even prostitution has its latent functions. The availability of this kind of sex on demand might
help to stabilize some functioning, strong but loveless marriages that otherwise may collapse.
It is also one way to meet the sexual needs of a large number of people who do not have ready
access to sex; those who are not attractive or have problems establishing relationships. Some
people might favour prostitution because they just simply want sex with no commitment,
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,responsibility simply without the trouble of a relationship. “Men don’t pay for sex, they pay to
leave”.
Merton’s rain dance example: The manifest function of performing a rain dance is to call forth/
to produce rain. The latent function of this ritual is that it strengthens the group by producing
a sense of belonging, togetherness or oneness in the participants.
Merton also explained that certain social patterns and structures do affect various members of a
society very differently. Conventional families may provide benefits to young children as well as
men, but might limit the opportunities of women.
He also argued that some social patterns support the status quo while others disrupt it. Social
dysfunction is any social pattern that disrupt the operation of society. Not all structures are
functional for society as whole, some functional for some groups only and dysfunctional to others.
Crime is generally viewed as harmful but it provides jobs for millions, who work within the
criminal system.
➢ Functionalism emphasizes CONSENSUS (relative stability is mostly the result of
widespread agreement on what is morally acceptable and desirable) and ORDER that
exist in a society, focusing on social stability, integration, harmony, continuity.
➢ As social structures are interconnected and dependent on each other, change is
viewed as evolutionary. When one part of society is dysfunctional, it affects all other
parts too, resulting in social problems being emerged. To recapture stability,
productivity and to create a New Order, other parts must adapt. This is how social
change occurs.
➢ Functionalists tend to favour scientific sociology when it comes to research.
Researchers act more like objective observers.
STRENGTHS OF FUNCTIONALISM
➢ Because it is a structural, top-down theory with a macro-level orientation it looks at
society as whole which allows us to see the bigger picture, takes wider social factors
into account, looks at how our society is structured and works, how it affects and
shapes our lives and behaviour.
➢ It is also good at explaining the persistence of social phenomena and the fact that
societies tend to tick over peacefully.
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, WEAKNESSES OF FUNCTIONALISM
➢ It finds it difficult to explain change and conflict. It assumes that a common agreement
on core values really exists. In general, focusing on stability at the expense of conflict
makes it somewhat conservative. In the mid-1900’s it was quite popular among
sociologists, however, its influence has declined in recent decades.
➢ Inequalities of social class/gender/race/age can generate considerable conflict.
Critics point out, that functionalists tend to ignore that. Functionalism does not
encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even
when such change may benefit them. It is generally seen as being supportive of the
Status Quo.
KEY THEORISTS
EMILE DURKHEIM: THE FUNCTIONS OF DEVIANCE (1895)
Durkheim argued that deviance as well as crime are actually necessary parts of society.
Deviance has 4 essential functions.
According to functionalists, we do have a value consensus within society, that is a common
agreement on what is considered to be morally desirable and acceptable. Morality must be
sustained in order to keep a society’s relative stability and harmony. But something can only
be sustained, once it’s been defined. What we mean on virtue rests upon an opposing idea of
vice. We would have no understanding of good without having any conception of evil.
Similarly, morality would not exist without deviance.
Although no thought or action is naturally deviant-it only becomes deviant in relation to
particular norms- by defining/labelling certain people as deviant, a boundary between right
and wrong can be drawn. Moral boundaries are clarified.
Durkheim also argued that deviance at times acts in a kind of counterproductive way. Even
though having a disruptive function, it still promotes social unity since people typically react
to serious deviance with collective outrage. For instance; after the terrorist attack on the 11th
of September, 2001 people in the US. were joined by a common desire to bring those
responsible to justice. The United States just like the UK is essentially an individualistic culture
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