This is an extremely high quality document with two detailed essay plans on the questions :Evaluate the view that foreign policy is dominated as much by congress as by the presidency and Evaluate the view that the constitutional system of checks and balances is an obstacle to effective government. ...
A Level Politics essay plan for the following questions:
1, Evaluate the view that foreign policy is dominated as much by congress as by the
presidency?
2. Evaluate the view that the constitutional system of checks and balances is an obstacle to
effective government?
Achieved an A* in both essays
Colour coded to show examples, analysis and important analysis.
Evaluate the view that foreign policy is dominated as much by congress as by the
presidency?
For the foreign policy to be dominated as much my congress as by the presidency their
powers should be equal
Yes – congress
Proponents to the proposition would posit that Foreign policy is dominated as much by
congress as by the presidency because congress is endowed by the constitution with the
enumerated power to declare war and this coupled with the war powers act of 1973 make it
a dominant force in foreign policy.
Power of declaring war and the powers of funding. Because the constitution is the
highest law of the land congress is endowed with the constitutional right to formally
declare war on another nation as seen with Japan in 1942, something which the
president is deprived of. Proponents to the proposition may use this to justify that
because it is an enumerated power mentioned in article 1 in the constitution and that
it is arguably the most important element of foreign policy this provides a justification
for the argument that congress dominates foreign policy as much as the president.
However, this argument is very weak, the last time this was done was in 1942 with
japan whereas the president has engaged in many, Trump for example ordered
many airstrikes in Syria in response to Al-Assad’s chemical regime program.
, though it has constitutional foundations as it is an enumerated power in the
constitution, in modern day society where war is unanimously disapproved of, this
power is of little significance and yields little genuine power and influence in over
foreign policy with the president able to exercise greater control on a regular basis.
The absence congress’s ability to declare war being used frequently justifies how it is
more theoretical power rather than a practical one and as such the president
dominates foreign policy more than that of congress and their influence cannot be
equated. If congress dominated foreign policy the same as the president they would
War powers act 1973 – limits presidential power by arguing that president can only
deploy troops in what the act describes as ‘hostilities’ abroad with congressional
approval unless there is a national emergency with congress having the
constitutional right to remove forces and the president is obliged to withdraw forces
after 60 days unless voted by congress otherwise. This was seen with Clinton in
1994 where he was forced to remove troops from Somalia. However, this can be
evaded – bill Clinton in 1999 with bombing of Kosovo evaded the act by going
beyond the 60-day limit. Reagan sent military personnel to el Salvador without the
consulting or submitting a report to congress. More recently, Obama in 2011 sent
military troops to Libya without consulting congress too with the justification that the
activities in Libya did not constitute the ‘hostilities’ in the act and this underlines how
the act can be evaded by presidents and therefore does not act as a strong limit to
, their power and influence over foreign policy. Though congress has disapproved of
the acts violation little has been done to reform the act to make it more effective. In
2000 the supreme court for example refused to hear the case about the act being
violated during military operations in Yugoslavia.
Subject to senate ratification – limits the power of the president and therefore
dominates foreign policy the same because they oversee the work of the president.
Obama’s UN disability rights treaty was blocked by the senate for example
underlining how can exert influence over foreign policy as much as the president.
Clinton in 1999 was rejected easily by the senate in his comprehensive test ban
treaty on nuclear weapons. However, given the increasing polarisation of parties and
the increasing partisanship it is unlikely for parties to work collectively and oppose a
treaty. The increasing partisanship is best embodied by the appointment of Amy
Coney Barrett as a supreme court justice where 52 republicans and 48 democrats
voted for her, the first time since 1869 that no senator from the opposing party voted
for the nomination mirroring the growing polarisation between the parties making a
bipartisan block of a treaty limited. Presidents can also use executive orders to
influence foreign policy which bypasses senate ratification and congressional
oversight and though congress can overturn an order this requires a supermajority of
2/3 of the vote, which is difficult to obtain. Trump for example in 2017 passed his
‘immigration ban’ on seven countries restricting immigration and in 2021 president
Biden passed an executive order to re-join the Paris climate agreement highlighting
how the use of executive orders has become prominent in foreign policy.
No – presidency
Increasing use of executive agreements has eroded congress’s power because
treaties would be subject to senate ratification. For example, Obama passed his deal
with Iran in 2015 agreeing to lift some trade embargos. He also in 2015 passed an
agreement with china stipulating to reduce CO2 emission. Moreover, though around
800 treaties with other countries have been signed this is a mere figure when
compared to the 13,000 executive agreements signed by presidents. Political
scientist Aaron Wildavsky corroborated this argument proposing the theory of a ‘dual
presidency’ which consists of a foreign policy president whom is unconstrained and
can exercise a great deal of control in this area but this is completely juxtaposed with
a domestic policy president whom is subjugated by various limits to their power.
Constitutional power of commander in chief and chief diplomat – though it is not an
enumerated power outlined in the constitution like congress’s is its ability to declare
war, this is used more often and thus is of more significance. Because of this power,
the president can undertake military operations without a congressional vote and
thus exercise more control over military operations. Obama in 2011 for example
engaged in military action in Libya and conducted air strikes in Iraq and Syria in the
fight against the Islamic state. Most recently, Tump in 2020 ordered the
assassination of the Iranian military leader Qasem Soleimani. Practically the
president by the public is viewed to be the main diplomat and members of congress
who have tried to exert influence on foreign policy have been criticised. Nany Pelosi
for example was criticised for meeting with president Assad in Syria in 2007 and john
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