Chapter 6: long-term memory
In practice, storage failures probably do not occur unless there is damage to
the brain, so it is probable that most forgetting is caused by either learning
failure or retrieval failure.
Decay – memories fade away with the passage of time, regardless of other
input.
Interference – memories are actively disrupted by the influence of some other
input (by Ebbinghaus).
The memory for a list was also subject to interference from a previously
learned list, a phenomenon known as proactive interference. In summary, the
interference effect could be caused by any additional input occurring either
before or after the target list.
Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF): The phenomenon whereby the successful
retrieval of a memory trace inhibits the retrieval of rival memory traces.
Meaning, Knowledge and Schemas
1 Schema theory: we perceive and encode information into our memories in
terms of our past experience.
2 Schemas are the mental representations that we have built up from all
that we have experienced in the past, and according to Bartlett we
compare our new perceptual input with our schemas in an effort to find
something meaningful and familiar. Any input which does not match up
with existing schemas will either be distorted to make it match the
schemas, or else it will not be retained at all.
3 A passage is more memorable if we can make use of our knowledge and
experience to increase its meaningfulness.
,4 Schank and Abelson (1977) proposed a form of schema called a script,
which combines a sequence of events which might normally be expected
in a particular situation.
5 The phenomenon of distortion has not been so extensively studied (with
only a few).
6 Mnemonics depend on adding meaning to an item in order to make it
more memorable.
Input processing and Encoding
Object shape word sound meaningful content
1 LOP theory emphasises the need to carry out extensive processing on
incoming information in order to store it.
2 An orienting task is essentially a set of instructions which are intended to
direct the subject towards a certain type of processing.
3 Even when we are deliberately trying to learn something we cannot
improve on semantic processing, which is more important than making a
deliberate effort to learn (Craik, 1977)
4 This revised version of the theory assumes that any new input will be
subjected to several different types of processing at the same time,
though semantic processing apparently creates a more effective and
lasting memory trace than the non-semantic forms of processing.
, 5 Rehearsal is commonly employed as a method of retaining a piece of
information, as for example repeating a telephone number over and over
to yourself until you have the chance to write it down.
6 Craik and Lockhart (1972): ‘maintenance rehearsal’, in which the input is
merely repeated without further processing, and ‘elaborative rehearsal’, in
which links are created between the new input and previously stored
information.
7 Only elaborative rehearsal would lead to long-term retention of the
information, and that maintenance rehearsal served only to hold it
temporarily in conscious awareness without actually strengthening the
trace.
8 Elaborative encoding refers to the formation of associative connections
with other memory traces, and this occurs most effectively where
meaningful associations can be found.
9 Since each of these associative links can serve as a potential retrieval
route, the trace will be more easily retrieved if there are many possible
pathways leading back to it.
10 Mandler’s organization theory suggests that memory is structured into a
semantic network of related items, and accessing one item activates the
whole network
Retrieval and Retrieval cues
1 Spontaneous recall: requires the generation of items from memory without
any help.
2 Cued recall: retrieval cues are provided to remind us of the items to be
In practice, storage failures probably do not occur unless there is damage to
the brain, so it is probable that most forgetting is caused by either learning
failure or retrieval failure.
Decay – memories fade away with the passage of time, regardless of other
input.
Interference – memories are actively disrupted by the influence of some other
input (by Ebbinghaus).
The memory for a list was also subject to interference from a previously
learned list, a phenomenon known as proactive interference. In summary, the
interference effect could be caused by any additional input occurring either
before or after the target list.
Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF): The phenomenon whereby the successful
retrieval of a memory trace inhibits the retrieval of rival memory traces.
Meaning, Knowledge and Schemas
1 Schema theory: we perceive and encode information into our memories in
terms of our past experience.
2 Schemas are the mental representations that we have built up from all
that we have experienced in the past, and according to Bartlett we
compare our new perceptual input with our schemas in an effort to find
something meaningful and familiar. Any input which does not match up
with existing schemas will either be distorted to make it match the
schemas, or else it will not be retained at all.
3 A passage is more memorable if we can make use of our knowledge and
experience to increase its meaningfulness.
,4 Schank and Abelson (1977) proposed a form of schema called a script,
which combines a sequence of events which might normally be expected
in a particular situation.
5 The phenomenon of distortion has not been so extensively studied (with
only a few).
6 Mnemonics depend on adding meaning to an item in order to make it
more memorable.
Input processing and Encoding
Object shape word sound meaningful content
1 LOP theory emphasises the need to carry out extensive processing on
incoming information in order to store it.
2 An orienting task is essentially a set of instructions which are intended to
direct the subject towards a certain type of processing.
3 Even when we are deliberately trying to learn something we cannot
improve on semantic processing, which is more important than making a
deliberate effort to learn (Craik, 1977)
4 This revised version of the theory assumes that any new input will be
subjected to several different types of processing at the same time,
though semantic processing apparently creates a more effective and
lasting memory trace than the non-semantic forms of processing.
, 5 Rehearsal is commonly employed as a method of retaining a piece of
information, as for example repeating a telephone number over and over
to yourself until you have the chance to write it down.
6 Craik and Lockhart (1972): ‘maintenance rehearsal’, in which the input is
merely repeated without further processing, and ‘elaborative rehearsal’, in
which links are created between the new input and previously stored
information.
7 Only elaborative rehearsal would lead to long-term retention of the
information, and that maintenance rehearsal served only to hold it
temporarily in conscious awareness without actually strengthening the
trace.
8 Elaborative encoding refers to the formation of associative connections
with other memory traces, and this occurs most effectively where
meaningful associations can be found.
9 Since each of these associative links can serve as a potential retrieval
route, the trace will be more easily retrieved if there are many possible
pathways leading back to it.
10 Mandler’s organization theory suggests that memory is structured into a
semantic network of related items, and accessing one item activates the
whole network
Retrieval and Retrieval cues
1 Spontaneous recall: requires the generation of items from memory without
any help.
2 Cued recall: retrieval cues are provided to remind us of the items to be
