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LiberalismIntroduction: a pervasive ideology
Commentators agree that liberalism is most important + influential ideology
According to UN, almost 2/3 of states across globe classed as ‘liberal democracies’ – 7-fold increase since 1945
Represents ‘the end of history’, inevitable destination for advanced societies + politicians who guide them
In UK, USA + much of W EUR, being ‘liberal’ denotes being at odds with values of conservatism, while being closer to
values of socialism (term used in politics ‘liberal-left’)
- ^ explains why self-proclaimed US liberal, such as Hillary Clinton, found herself seeking same party’s presidential
nomination as self-proclaimed socialist, Bernie Sanders, while opposing aggressive conservatives in Rep Party
Term ‘liberal’ in states of S hemisphere + W Pacific, has different connotation
- In Australia, Liberal Party offers main opposition to Labor Party, while providing home for Australia’s self-styled
cons
The origins of liberalism
Roots lie in Reformation – religious movement affecting N EUR in late 15 th + 16th
Led by religious protestors, like Martin Luther, founders of ‘protestant’ Christianity argued that individuals seeking to
communicate with God + understand His commands, need no longer rely on priests, popes, other intermediaries
Luther argued Christianity could assume > individualistic character, each man + women undertaking own private
prayers + God’s work in own way
Enlightenment sought to extend ^ religious ideas into political sphere = intellectual movement mid-17 th + had profound
effect on politics in 18th
Radical ideas emerged = individual is someone with free will, everyone is best judge of own interests, each individual’s
life should be shaped by individual’s actions + decisions
John Locke (1632-1704) regarded as ‘father’ of liberalism – questioned relationship between individuals + gov, seeking
to define why + how individuals should defer to those who governed them
Until 17th – assumed that natural form of gov was monarchical; king put in place by God + his decisions should be
instinctively accepted = divine right of Kings
Enlightenment challenged + destroyed such medieval attitudes
For Locke + others, human beings endowed with power of logic, calculation + deduction
Logical that human beings should create, by themselves + for themselves, political system based upon reason
- Political scientists now describe ^ as mechanistic theory = mankind rational + capable of devising state that reflects
mankind needs
THE CORE IDEAS OF LIBERALISM
Human nature
1st articulated by Locke + refined by later liberal thinkers like John Stuart Mill (1806-73) – reflected view associated with
Enlightenment
Enlightenment’s most important features = challenge to medieval notion of human nature, tied to religious doctrine of
original sin
- Doctrine held that mankind was flawed + imperfect + man’s only hope lay in him acknowledging his flaws +
imperfections while praying for God’s forgiveness
Liberalism denies ^ view, offering optimistic view of human nature
Argue that human nature has capacity to bring about progress, ability to forge > human happiness, belief that
individuals guided by reason/rationalism + able to calculate answers to all sorts of problems
Believe that mankind’s innate reason is manifested in debate, discussion, peaceful argument + measured examination
of ideas + opinions
Individuals have capacity to plan own future (not by will of God or fate) = cheery liberal belief that human nature allows
us to shape our own destiny
For liberalism, human problems are challenges awaiting reasoned solutions
Assume rationality is universal feature of human nature = assume reasoned discussion = consensus
Individuals naturally self-seeking + self-serving = association with egotistical individualism (classical liberalism, denotes
belief that human beings naturally drawn to advancement of own selfish interests + pursuit of own happiness)
Believe that its mankind’s innate rationality + virtue that stops ^ leading to destructive selfishness + competitions
Claim that individuals are egotistical + reasonable, sensitive to perspective of fellow men + women = ensures natural
condition of human nature is 1 of self-aware individuals, living in peace, harmony, mutual understanding
,Society
Optimistic view of human nature informs liberal view about whether society can exist without state
Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan (1651) argues human nature is selfish + no society could arise/survive until human nature
restrained by strong, formal authority
Early liberal philosophers, Locke, cite existence of ‘natural’ society with ‘natural’ laws + natural rights all of which
precede state = life before state was not ‘nasty, brutish + short’ (Hobbles) but pleasant, civilised + long
Belief in natural society + natural rights = liberals place importance on individual
- John Stuart Mill emphasised in mid-19th, main purpose of civilised society is to facilitate individualism
- Mill + other liberals argue everyone has unique personality + talents; individuals are rational in pursuit of self-
interest; individuals are egotistical, driven by wish to fulfil potential + desire to be self-reliant + independent = each
individual seeks freedom
- Mill’s On Liberty (1859) = freedom from any dependency on others + freedom to live one’s life in way that
maximises self-reliance + self-fulfilment
- Individualism = individual needs should be at heart of political thought, econ life, social organisation, + that society
should prioritise improvement of diverse, individual lives
- Its implications are that liberal politicians seek to
1. Maximise number of individuals achieving self-determination
2. Maximise number of individuals achieving self-realisation
3. Maximise number of individuals attaining self-fulfilment
Believe default setting of society = focus upon individual freedom + any society which seeks to deny individualism is
dysfunctional
Right to property important + seen as tangible expression of individual in society
For later liberals, Mill, property is ‘prism’ through which individuals develop potential, opportunity for men + women to
nurture their taste + judgement
The economy
Devotion to private property = inevitable to support capitalism
Property is natural right = support econ that puts private property at heart of econ arrangements
Liberal economist Adam Smith enunciated his theory of markets in The Wealth of Nations (1776) = liberalism associated
with private enterprise + private ownership of econ, explaining why capitalism is described as econ liberalism:
- Econ system that emerged in EUR in late 17th
- Liberal aspect of capitalism stems from:
1. Private property which early liberals like Locke considered ‘natural right’
2. Individualistic in theory, involving individual traders cooperating + competing
3. Ultimate benefit to all = revealing liberalism’s eternal optimism + belief in progress
Defend market-based econ + refute anti-capitalist message of ‘fundamentalist’ socialism
Smith asserted if obstacles to free trade were swept away, invisible hand will guide traders towards success, resulting
wealth would ‘trickle down’ to everyone + ‘wealth of nations’ would be promoted globally = reflecting optimistic tone
of liberalism’s core values
The state
Whereas anarchists see state as eternal enemy of individualism, liberals from Locke + Smith onwards, believe
individualism + capitalism work best when accompanied by certain kind of state
The liberal state: origins
Optimistic view of human nature, but still accepts that within state of nature, there would’ve been clashes of interests
between individuals pursuing own, egocentric agendas
Locke worried that without formal structures only state can provide, resolution of such clashes might not always be
efficient
As result, individualism in state of nature could’ve been impeded by stalemated disputes between competing
individuals
Mechanism (state) required to arbitrate between competing claims of rational individuals
Liberals argue that state of nature, tolerable though it may be, is inferior to formalised state they recommend
The liberal state: objectives
Root justification = allowed more effective resolution of disputes
, Locke + later liberals keen to show kind of state they wanted embodied wider + grander principles = developed by
England’s Bill of Rights 1690, US Constitution 1787 + 1 st French Republic 1789
Objectives emerged from these historical events, central to understanding what liberal state seeks to achieve
Rejection of Traditional state
Liberal state founded upon rejection of monarchical, absolutist, arbitrary rule common in EUR prior Enlightenment
Liberal state renounces sort of state where power concentrated in hands of 1 individual + power exercised
randomly
Liberal state contemptuous of any gov that claimed ‘divine right’ to govern, according to subjective + irrational
perception of God’s will
Government by Consent
Rejection of ‘divine right of kings’ = liberalism insists that state is legitimate only if those under its jurisdiction have
volunteered to be under its jurisdiction
^ doctrine has profound effect upon relationship between politicians + people
Traditionally ‘subjects’ of gov, people in state now have ultimate control over it
As Locke maintained: ‘gov should always be the servant, not master of the people’
For this reason, ‘gov by consent’ can be linked to notion of ‘gov by contract’ – what Enlightenment theorists like
Jean Jacques Rousseau later dubbed a ‘social contract’:
- Linked to Enlightenment philosophers like Locke + Rousseau, term denotes that state should be deal between gov
+ governed – in return for submitting state’s laws, governed should be guaranteed certain rights + citizen’s
obligation to obey state’s laws
So, individuals who ‘contract out’ of state of nature + ‘contract in’ to formal state of law agree to accept latter’s
authority + restrictions, but promised something in return
Promotion of natural rights/individualism
Assume that before any formal state was created, individuals enjoyed natural rights that established individualism
Would be irrational for individuals to abandon natural rights + individualism by submitting unconditionally to any
state
Only rational reason to submit to state would be if it respected + promoted natural rights, ensuring they were >
safely + easily exercised than in state of nature
Promotion of tolerance
Liberal state concerned to ensure tolerance towards individuals who exercise their natural rights in different ways
French philosopher Voltaire (1694-1778) issued his famous clarion call for freedom, claiming ‘I detest what you say
but will defend unto the death your right to say it’
^ notion developed by Mill who insisted state should tolerate all actions + opinions unless they were shown to
violate harm principle = principle that individuals should be free to do + say anything unless it could be proved that
this harmed rights + freedoms of other individuals within state
Although liberalism is individualistic creed, it recognises that individuals don’t seek isolation + detachment from
fellow people (‘atomised’ environment), but instead drawn to societies that accommodate their individualism
Early liberals aware that individuals inclined to congregate into religious communities = important that state should
show tolerance to such communities
Glorious Revolution 1688, cemented Protestant supremacy in England, Locke keen that post-Revolution state
should extend tolerance towards Roman Catholics
Since then, tolerating minorities is ongoing passion for those seeking to support + advance liberal state
Since mid-20th, American liberals like Betty Friedan (1921-2006) sought to update Locke’s belief in tolerance of
minorities, campaigning for state to improve lot of individuals hindered by ethnicity, sexuality, physicality, gender
Meritocracy
Political power should be exercised only by those who show themselves worthy of it
Gov conducted by individuals who have won trust of governed
Meritocratic liberal state stands in contrast to traditional state
Pre-Enlightenment regimes, power was hereditary + aristocratic
Thomas Paine (1737-1809) remarked when justifying French Revolution’s overthrow of nobility in 1789, hereditary
rule was ‘beyond equity, beyond reason + most certainly beyond wisdom’
Aristocracy has no place in meritocratic liberal state commended by Locke, Mill + others
, Equality of opportunity
Article of faith that all individuals born equal, have equal natural rights + are of equal value = foundational equality
Within liberal state, all individuals must have equal opportunity to develop potential + achieve control of own lives
If individual fails to fulfil potential, must assume total responsibility for failure
Justice
Linked to equality of opportunity
Belief that state should embody justice: there must be assumption that it will treat individuals fairly without regard
to their identity
Individuals within liberal state must be able to assume a just outcome from any complaints they express +
satisfactory resolution to any grievances they have with other individuals
The liberal state: methods + structures
Structure of state must embody:
1. Constitutional/limited gov
2. Fragmented gov
3. Formal equality
Constitutional/limited government
Consistent with its faith in gov by consent, Liberalism holds that contract between gov + governed should be
cemented by const
Keeping with its faith in rationalism, this constitution should be preceded by discussion + consensus over what gov
should do + how it should do it
Constitutional rule is in contrast to arbitrary rule characteristics of monarchical states, where rules did what they
pleased, using methods they wanted
Cons gov = limited gov, with liberal const, imposing 2 limitations:
1. Ensures gov must govern according to prearranged rules + procedures
2. Liberal const designed to prevent govs from eroding natural rights of citizens
Fragmented gov
Fragmentation of state power brought about as reaction against pre-Enlightenment states where power
concentrated in monarchy
Lord Acton (1834-1902) observed ‘power tends to corrupt…and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely’
Fragmented gov reflects liberalism’s belief in rationality of mankind: if individuals reasonable + inclined to self-
determination, seems logical to empower as many individuals as possible in exercise of state’s functions
Idea of fragmented power has most celebrated embodiment in Const of US
Indebted to ideas of Locke, it introduces ‘checks + balances’, designed to avoid power being concentrated
The liberal state: how is power dispersed:
1. Formal ‘separation of powers’ between executive, legislature, judiciary
2. Separation of powers within legislature, so as to produce ‘bicameral’ legislature
3. Bill of Rights, immune to short-term decisions of gov
4. Supreme court, to uphold any Bill of Rights + whose decisions override those of gov
5. Federal system of gov, whereby many of state’s functions are delegated to regional govs
Formal equality
Liberal belief in foundation equality = liberal state strives for formal equality, where all individuals have same legal
+ political rights in society
Emphasis on doctrine of ‘rule of law’, which holds that laws passed in liberal state are applicable to everyone, no
exemptions granted on basis of states
No one should be outside the law, but no one should be above it
Formal equality linked to equal political rights – for e.g. equal right to petition parl, equal right to invoke Bill of
Rights before courts, equal right to criticise state while exercising ‘natural’ right to freedom of speech + publication
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIERALISM
Classical liberalism (late 17th- late 19th)
Ambiguous + includes diverse cast of politicians + philosophers
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