The Changing Political Environment 1917-80
Assess the reasons for Harding’s victory in 1920
- Democrat weaknesses: Woodrow Wilson took US into WWI in 1917, despite
previously promising to keep out of it. Wilson hoped for a second term but was
unpopular—James Cox, a dark horse candidate, was nominated instead. Wilson’s
Fourteen Points of Jan 1918. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson put
forward a League of Nations draft proposal. Non-interventionist opinion—US never
joined. 1919 Chicago race riots in July/Aug resulted in 38 deaths.
- Laissez faire/Return to normalcy: ‘buy American’ became a watchword. Not
joining the League of Nations. 1921 Emergency Quota Act restricted immigration to
357,000 a year, revised to 150,000 in 1924. Harding: “America’s present need is not
heroics, but healing.” Unemployment had risen from 950,000 in 1919 to 5,010,000 in
1921. Normalcy is a “steady, stable way of life.”
- Pro-business agenda: Herbert Hoover, millionaire miner, to be appointed
Secretary of Commerce. Andrew Mellon, banking millionaire, to be appointed
Secretary of the Treasury: “the Government is just a business, and can and should be
run on business principles.” Anticipated Arther Laffer’s “Laffer Curve” and promised
to reduce the 73% top income tax bracket to 25%. The Fordney–McCumber Tariff of
1922 was a law that raised American tariffs on many imported goods to protect
factories and farms.
How accurate is it to say that the American presidents were ‘do-nothing
presidents’ in the period 1921-33?
- YES/Calvin Coolidge: nicknamed ‘Silent Cal’ as Vice President. "I think the
American people want a solemn ass as a President," he once told Ethel Barrymore,
"and I think I will go along with them." In a 1923 Congress address, Coolidge chose to
support Harding’s policies (budgeting, immigration restrictions, arbitration of coal
strikes in Pennsylvania). The address to Congress was the first broadcast over the
radio— but not revolutionary like Roosevelt’s ‘Fireside Chats’. Dorothy Parker, upon
learning that Coolidge had died, reportedly remarked, "How can they tell?"
- NO/Warren Harding: 1921 Emergency Quota Act restricted immigration to
357,000 a year, revised to 150,000 in 1924. Harding: “America’s present need is not
heroics, but healing.” Unemployment had risen from 950,000 in 1919 to 5,010,000 in
1921. Andrew Mellon anticipated Arther Laffer’s “Laffer Curve” and reduced the 73%
top income tax bracket to 25%. The Fordney–McCumber Tariff Act of 1922 was a law
that raised American tariffs on many imported goods to protect factories and farms.
- NO/Herbert Hoover: termed “volunteerism” alternative to invasive Federal help.
The 1929 Agricultural Marketing Act established the Federal Farm Board to stabilise
farm prices. Use of commissions: the 1929 Research Committee on Social Trends
surveyed the entirety of American society and collected data on social institutions. In
1930 Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the
Federal Farm Board policies amidst the Great Depression.
Assess the reasons for Roosevelt’s victory in 1932 election
- Hoover: In 1929, following the Wall Street Crash, the 1929 Agricultural Marketing
Act established the Federal Farm Board to stabilise farm prices—a special case. In
1930, set up the President’s Emergency Committee for Employment, a temporary
, employment support organisation; it was overwhelmed. By 1932 Hoover had
convinced Congress to give $2,000 million to the government, who spent over
$5,000 million. Too late; shanty towns nicknamed ‘Hoovervilles’; on Hoover’s
Presidential campaign trail an Iowa farmer’s banner read: “In Hoover We Trusted
And Now We Are Busted.”
- Bonus Army Scandal: In 1924, the US gov gave WWI veterans a bonus based on
their years of service. They paid out just $50 that year; the rest was in a fund to be
paid out in 1945. After the 1929 Crash, veterans were refused an early advance on
their money. June 1932, around 200,000 marched to Washington in protest. July
1932, troops were sent in with tear gas and bayonets. Two were killed—Hoover
unpopular.
- Roosevelt: By 1931, the Democrats had a majority in the House of Representatives.
In 1932, Roosevelt offered Americans a ‘New Deal’. His election campaign song was
‘Happy Days Are Here Again’; he had been an effective Governor of New York.
Roosevelt pointed to Hoover’s campaign as led by ‘Destruction, Despair, Delay and
Doubt.’ In the 1932 election, 40 million people voted (highest in American history)
and Hoover only won six states. In 1936, they won just two states.
How accurate is it to say that Roosevelt’s Presidency went from ‘strength to
strength’ between 1933-1945?
- NO: Activist Elizabeth Dilling compared Roosevelt to Stalin in her 1936 book ‘The
Roosevelt Red Record’. Both the 1933 National Recovery Administration and the
1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
in 1935. In 1937, Roosevelt attempted to respond by increasing the number of
Supreme Court judges to ‘pack’ the court with his supporters; he proposed a new
judge for every existing judge over 70 (six out of nine). Violated separation of powers
and Roosevelt abandoned it.
- NO: By 1936, 75% of black voters supported the Democrats. The 1933 National
Recovery Administration offered white people first choice of jobs and authorised
lower pay for black workers. The 1934 Federal Housing Administration refused to
guarantee mortgages for blacks who tried to buy in white neighborhoods, and the
1933 Civilian Conservation Corps maintained segregated camps in environmental
conservation projects.
- YES: Roosevelt’s ‘New Deal’ and Alphabet Agencies were revolutionary. Expanded
federal gov so that plans (inc the development of Tennessee Valley which covered
seven states) could happen with a federal agency coordinating. In 1933, National
Recovery Administration set up and enforced codes of practice for businesses, inc
working hours and a min wage. The 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act regulated
major crops inc wheat, cotton and milk, and bought up surplus crops.
- YES: Reform. Roosevelt defined reform as “permanent programs to avoid another
depression and insure citizens against economic disasters” (‘The Three R’s). 1934
Securities and Exchange Commission regulated stocks and bonds. 1935 Social
Security Act provided funds for vulnerable Americans (the old/needy).
- YES: In his inaugural speech in March 1933, Roosevelt insisted that, “The only thing
we have to fear is fear itself.” Hoover had just three assistants and some secretaries;
Roosevelt set up a separate Executive Office of the President and used presidential
executive orders to push laws through when Congress objected. Instituted radio
broadcasts (‘Fireside Chats’) to communicate with the people; Roosevelt was the first
