CN Sociology - Theories of Religion
Functionalism & Religion (Consensus structuralism)
Durkheim: The Sacred & The Profane
-Durkheim was the first functionalist thinker to develop the idea that religion is a key institution in creating and
maintaining value consensus.
-For him, a key feature in the definition of religion was the distinction between the sacred and the profane.
-The sacred = the things that are set apart and are forbidden, they inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder.
They are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions.
-The profane = by contrast are mundane and have no significance.
-Ex. Reading a romance novel is profane, reading the bible is sacred.
-For Durkheim, the sacred symbols represent society; as it is the only thing powerful enough to evoke such
emotion.
-This when people worship the sacred symbol they are worshipping society. This then helps to perform the
essential function of uniting followers into the collective conscience.
Totemism
-Durkheim believed that the essence of all religion could be found in studying the simplest forms of society -
clan society. He therefore studied the Arunta (Australian Aboriginal tribe).
-The Arunta are a clan that come together to perform rituals involving the worship of a sacred totem. The
totem is the clan's emblem, Ex. an animal or plant that symbolises the clan’s origins and identity. The rituals
serve to reinforce the group's sense of solidarity and belonging.
-By worshipping the totem Durkheim believed that they were in fact worshiping society, even though they
weren't aware of it.
-The totem inspires feelings of awe on the group because it represents the power of the group and their utter
dependence upon it.
The Collective Conscience
-Durkheim believed that the sacred symbol represents society's collective conscience.
-Regular shared religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and reinforce social order. People bond
through shared sacred rituals and are reminded of the power of society, without which they are nothing and owe
everything to.
-Religion helps people feel they are part of something bigger than themselves. It helps to reinvigorate
people in the face of life’s trials and motivate us to overcome obstacles.
-Durkheim even though Nationalism was a form of religion - he called it civil religion, because it had a similar
function to more conventional religions.
Cognitive Functions of Religion
-Durkheim believed that religion is the source of the concepts and categories we need for reasoning,
understanding the world and communicating. In other words, our ability to reason and think conceptually.
-It provides us with the basic categories such as time, space and causation. Ex. the creator bringing the world
into being at the beginning of time. Equally the division of tribes into clans helps to give humans their first
notion of classification. Thus for Durkheim, religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science.
Durkheim only studied small scale societies. How can generalisations be made on such a small
sample? Worsley (1956) also notes there is no sharp division between the sacred and profane -
different clans share totems.
It does not apply to modern society. For example, Mestrovic (2011) argues that in a modern society
Durkheim’s theory of religion could not be applied because increasing diversity has fragmented the
collective conscience. Durkheim’s theory of religion is therefore only really applicable to small scale
societies.
Durkheim does not take into consideration that religion can also create conflict within society. For
example, Ireland where there is more than one religion. Therefore, its role in helping to maintain social
solidarity could be questioned.
Civil religion has been particularly criticised for pushing the boundaries of possibility. Civil religion has
no supernatural element and has therefore not been seen by many as a religion at all.
,Psychological Functions
-Anthropologist Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that religion promotes social solidarity. However, he does not
see religion as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he see religious rituals as worshipping society.
-Malinowski believed that religion performed a psychological function in helping people cope with the
emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity. He identified 2 types of situations in society:
Where the outcome is important but it's uncontrollable and thus uncertain = ex. The Trobriand Islanders:
fishing in the lagoon was considered safe, but when fishing in the ocean, they prayed and carried out
rituals to overcome fear.
At a time of crisis, such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Malinowski believed that death was the
most disruptive of all these events. Religion helps us deal with death through the act of a funeral.
Parsons: Value & Meaning
-Like Malinowski, Parsons believes that religion helps people cope with uncontrollable events. In addition,
Parsons helps identify 2 essential functions that religion performs in society:
1. It creates and legitimates society’s central values.
Religion provides a guideline by which people can live their lives and be evaluated against. Ex.
Christianity in the USA underpins the value consensus for those who are not religious, as formal laws
have their origins in christianty.
The Ten Commandments perform the basis for many social norms.
1. It is a primary source of meaning.
Religion helps give answers to questions we simply cannot answer. For example, why do the good
suffer and why do some die young? This means that religion enables people to adjust to adverse events
and helps maintain stability.
Civil Religion: Bellah (1991)
-Like Parsons, Bellah is interested in how religion can unify society. However, for Bellah in an American
society with multiple faiths this is achieved through a civil religion - a belief system that attaches sacred
qualities to society itself. In America it is the ‘American way of life’.
Civil Religion
-American civil religion involves both a belief in god and a loyalty to the nation state. By doing thus people
can call themselves a true American.
-It is expressed in a variety of religious symbols and rituals, such as pledging allegiance to the flag. However,
the god spoken of is not any particular faith but an American god. Thus, this sacralises the American way of
life bringing together Americans of all kinds.
-This is described as a functional alternative. (Non-religious beliefs and practices that perform functions similar
to those of organised religion).
Evaluation: Functionalism
It focuses on the positive aspects of religion and fails to recognise that it can be a source of oppression
for women and the poor.
It ignores the notion that religion can be a source of conflict. For example, Northern Ireland or the
Israel / Palestine conflict.
Where there are multiple religions it is hard to see how people can be united. One response to this
could be civil religion. However, in ignoring the supernatural, civil religion has been questioned as a
religion.
It ignores the impact of secularisation. It would be difficult to use religion to create solidarity and
harmony in a society experiencing religious decline.
Marxism & Religion
-Marxists see all societies as divided into two classes, one which exploits the labour of the other. (R/C over
W/C).
-Those who own the means of production exploit the w/c.
-In such a society, there is always the potential for class conflict and Marx’s theory of religion needs to be seen in
the same context.
,-Whereas functionalism sees religion as a unifying force that strengthens the value consensus and is a feature of
all societies, Marxism sees religion as a feature only of a class-divided society.
-Social control
-Dominant ideology
-Hegemony
-False class consciousness
Althusser: State Apparatus
-RSA = physical control through structures such as the police and Judicial System. These control the w/c through
threats or punishments of custodial sentences, fines, ASBOs, curfews and other physical means.
-ISA = these structures control the way the w/c think and therefore behave in order to prevent deviant and / or
criminal behaviour. Ex. the education system, family, media and religion.
What does religion teach us about work?
-It is worth noting that, in Christian Teachings, Jesus had a day job: he worked as a carpenter.
-And we are led to believe that his disciples were fishermen.
-In Islamic teaching, the prophet Muhammad worked as a shepherd.
-In the book of Exodus 34:12 in the Jewish Torah (Old Testament) God states that: ‘six days thou shalt work, but
on the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earning time and in harvest thou shalt rest.
-’The rich man at his castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly and ordered their estate.
-In the past it was accepted that Kings had ‘Divine’ (God-given) power and therefore could not be challenged or
questioned.
-Catholicism teaches that the Pope’s authority and power comes from Saint Peter - the heir to Jesus’
ministry. In Catholicism the Pope is the highest authority.
-In ancient Egypt it was said that the Pharaoh Kings (the living embodiment of the God Horus) upon their death
entered the heavens to become Osiris - once again their power was based upon divination.
Religion & Alienation
-’Religion is the opium of the people. It is the sigh of the oppressed.’ - Marx.
-Religion is an ideological weapon that legitimises suffering. Ex. according to Christianity, ‘it is easier for a
camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.’
-Such ideas create a false consciousness - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to
change their situation.
-Similarly, Lenin described religion as ‘spiritual gin’ - an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the r/c to confuse
them and keep them in their place. It is a ‘mystical fog’.
-Ex. The Hindu belief in resurrection justifies the unequal Caste system.
Neo-Marxist Gramsci - ‘Hegemony’
, -Gramsci believed that the r/c used ideas of coercion to maintain their position.
-Hegemony = the way in which the r/c are able to use ideas such as religion to maintain their position.
Marxism Summary
-Overall, Marx sees religion as the product of alienation. It arises out of suffering and acts as a consolation
for it at the same time.
-It acts as an ideology that legitimates both suffering of the poor and privileges of the r/c.
-It acts as a conservative force, preventing a revolution.
-During the Industrial Revolution in England, employers used religion as a way of controlling their workers
and keeping them sober.
-In a classless society, there would be no need for religion.
Evaluation: Marxism
Secularisation - in Western Europe religion is in decline, suggesting it is no longer needed for r/c power.
Religion as a radical force. Religion can be a force for change. The liberation theology challenges r/c
power.
Functionalism: ignores the positive side to religion and benefits everyone, not just the r/c.
Religion does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population.
Abercrombie, Hill & Turner (2015) - in pre-industrial capitalist society it only has limited impact.
Gramsci himself recognised that hegemony can sometimes be seen through.
Feminists: religion acts to preserve patriarchal power and not class oppression.
Communism: Hoskin (1988) claimed that the USSR was more religious than in the UK.
Feminism & Religion (Conflict Structuralism)
-Feminists see society as patriarchal - that is, based on male domination.
-Many feminists regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality. This is
despite the fact that the formal teaching of religion stresses equality between the sexes.
Evidence of Patriarchy
Religious organisations:
-Mainly male dominated despite the fact women often participate more than men in these organisations. Ex.
Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests.
-Armstrong (1993) = sees the lack of women in religious organisations as evidence of women’s marginalisation.
Places of Worship:
-Often segregates the sexes and marginalises women. Ex. shutting them behind screens while men occupy the
central and more sacred spaces.
-They may not be allowed to preach or read from sacred texts.
-Is Islam, menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur’an. Holm (2001) describes this as the
devaluation of women in religion. (It is seen as polluting).
Sacred texts:
-Largely features the doings of male golds, prophets etc and are usually written and interpreted by men.
-Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as Eve who caused humanity’s fall from grace and was
excluded from the Garden of Eden.
Religious laws & customs
-May give women fewer rights than men. Ex. in access to divorce, decision making and dress code.
-Religious cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment such as genital mutilation or punishments for
sexual transgression. Many religions regulate and restrict a woman's domestic role.
-For example, the catholic church bans abortion and contraception. Woodhead (2002) argues that the
exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church’s unease about the emancipation of
women.
Some feminists argue that religion has not always seen women as subordinate to men.
Armstrong (1993) argues that early religion often placed women at the centre. Ex. Earth mother
goddesses, fertility cuts and female priesthoods were found throughout the Middle East until 6000 years
ago.
However, about 4000 years ago we began to see the rise of monotheism in religion and a single all
powerful male god.
