CN English - World Englishes
The Spread of World English
-English speakers have moved around the world during a period of colonial expansion, global trade and
invasion.
-However, there is always more to the story and the spread of English is not that simple.
World Englishes Key Terms
-World Englishes = refers to different varieties of English, which mostly arose out of colonial rule.
-English as a lingua franca (ELF) = a recent coinage; a language that people have in common to allow
communication between speakers of different languages. In mediaeval Europe, Latin was the main lingua franca.
-Global English = represents the scope of English today. However, this term makes it sound like English
dominates the speaking world.
-International English = a useful catch-all phrase - English is useful in all different contexts around the world.
-Dispora = dispersal of people and their languages to different parts of the world.
-First language (L1) = first language learned by an individual, usually in childhood.
-Second language (L2) = the second language learned by an individual.
-Lingua franca = a bridging language to allow communication between speakers of different languages.
Dispersal & Migration
-In 1600, between 5 and 7 million people spoke English - most of them being English themselves. Now,
almost 2 billion people speak English across at least 75 different global territories.
-In the first diaspora, English spread from the British Isles to areas that are now the USA, Canada, Australia
and New Zealand. This is largely because of English speakers settling in large numbers and establishing the new
first language.
-In the second diaspora, a smaller group of English speakers settled in areas such as South Africa, South
Asia and parts of Africa. English was often used as a means of communicating not just between settlers and
local people, but also among local people themselves. Therefore, English was initially a lingua franca, but
later achieved a degree of power and status, becoming an official language and gaining L2 status as a second
language.
-Imposing English on newly acquired territories was not just a linguistic decision, but a political one too.
Today, former colonial territories have different opinions about English: for some, it is a reminder of violence and
oppression; for others, it is a useful tool to have in the modern world.
Schneider’s Dynamic Model
-Of course, English in other countries evolved away from the ‘standard’ that exists in the UK.
-Comes up with a process, rather than a model or simple diagram
-Schneider considered the way a new variety of English develops in his dynamic model.
1. Foundation - first appearance of English in a territory by a colonising power leading to an emerging
bilingualism.
2. Exonormative stabilisation - following the norms of the language from outside of the community. An
‘elite’ bilingualism spreads, led by the politically dominant power.
3. Nativisation - old and new languages become linked. Bilingual speakers forge a new variety of English
as ties with settlers’ country of origin weaken.
4. Endonormative stabilisation - looking within the community for the norms of language use. A new
linguistic norm is established and codified.
5. Differentiation - new variety developing its own regional and social differences - leading to internal
diversity.
Singaporean English
, -Foundation - in the early 19th century the British established a trading post on the island of Singapore. The
population grows with the arrival of Chinese and Indian immigrants.
-Exonormative stabilisation - British English becomes considered the prestigious standard form, associated
with education, culture and progress.
-Nativisation - a new form of English develops in Singapore. Ex. use of particles like ah, lah, ‘Wait, ah’.
-Endonormative stabilisation - Singaporean Acrolect (there is no significant and consistent difference from the
features of Standard British English). Singaporean Mesolect (it has some features distinct from Standard British
English. Ex. Indefinite article deletion - ‘May I apply for a car licence?’ Sinporean Basilect (Singlish, Ex.
generalised ‘is it’ tag questions).
-Differentiation - internal varieties become evident, in the same way there are regional varieties in England.
He did not consider proficiency. Neither kachru or Schneider take into account the proficiency of
speakers to be understood by speakers of English anywhere in the world. Ex. Cheryl Cole was sacked
from the American version of X Factor as it was felt Americans would not understand her Geordie
accent so this issue is not just limited to the outer circle speakers. Glaswegian speakers have difficulty
making themselves understood by other parts of Britain.
Does not take into account the cultural and socio-linguistic issues that inner and outer circle speakers
may have. Some speakers are more blunt than others but have no intention of rudeness. British
speakers may well use more softeners or modifiers than others as part of our ‘so called politeness’. We
also use a lot more irony than Americans tend to.
Language Is Power
-Dominance, control, ownership, commerce, technology, communication etc all mean that English has been able
to spread so widely.
-It’s been a gradual progression though: remember that Latin used to hold the power in Europe, but the fall
from Rome and changes in Christian beliefs took away Latin’s control.
-Modern technology has really allowed English to continue to ‘hold’ its control on the globe.
What About Post-Colonial Countries Today?
-David Crystal (2007) = said that when a country becomes independent, there is a reaction to refrain from using
the linguistic character imposed by its colonial past and to look for native languages to provide a symbol for
nationhood. As a result, new ways of talking and writing develop and indigenous words become privileged.
-This was the case in Ghana and their views on RP being linked to prestige is starting to change - they are
embracing their own accent and seeing language as fun and creative.
Power - England or America?
-Peter Stevens (1980) = his model separated all English varieties into either having British or American
standards as their root, with American English accounting for Canada, the US, Puerto Rico and the Philippines,
and British English accounting for the rest of the world.
-This model, drawn upon a Mercator projection, Euro-centred map, provided an effective historical overview of
the development of globalised English.
However, the major weakness of constructing a model from a map is that it is unable to take into
account the English varieties that developed through contact with local vernaculars without direct
relation to either British or American Standard English.
