Liberalism
Terms:
Egotistical individualism - individual freedom requires the satisfaction of one's desires and needs. Some like
Thatcherist believe that this justifies the removal of society, as we instead like as a collection of rational self-interested
individuals. This supports the idea of the smallest state possible
Developmental individualism - these individuals believe in society, and although recognising individualism, believe
people wish to live side by side. They believe the state can make individuals more free by providing welfare and
support.
The harm principle - John Stuart Mill’s harm principle justifies the removal of one individual's liberty if it is harming
the freedom of another therefore ensuring freedom of community
Negative liberty - an individual is free from external constraints enabling them to act freely, for example freedom from
a tyrannical government enables freedom of speech and expression. Supports a small role for the state. The idea was
founded by Isiah Berlin
Positive liberty - an individual is given freedom to act as they wish by an authority, for example the state providing an
individual with an income which enables them to pursue greater actions. Supports a larger role for the state. The idea
was founded by Isiah Berlin
The state as a necessary evil - necessary because it provides structure and stability which prevents harm and disorder;
however, evil due to its power to restrict the freedom of an individual - therefore, liberals believe in state restriction to
prevent this superiority.
Paternalism - this does not respect the individual as a rational being and therefore does not respect their liberty
Rationalism - the consideration of all outcomes by using logic and wisdom, rather than emotion. This therefore
supports individual-determination and freedom
Paternalist ideologies - believe that some individuals are not rational enough to make logical and wise decisions, and
that instead others should on their behalf - liberals do not support this however one-nation conservatism does.
Tolerance - the acceptance of the minorities opinions and perspectives
Foundational equality - everybody maintains rights as a response of birth and these rights therefore cannot be
removed. Locke referred to this as natural rights
Formal equality - everybody possesses the same legal and political rights in society, however these need to be
protected by legislation - this is evident in the Rule of Law, and The Voting Rights Act of 1964
Equal opportunity - every individual is entitled to the same opportunities despite their individual identities. T.H Green
stated that this protects individuals from the inequalities of the ‘Cycle of Deprivation’ which provides barriers in life
(eg poverty and education) - this is evidenced in the Human Rights Act as well as the creation of the NHS
Laissez-faire capitalism - the belief the competition in the economy benefits the entirety of society
Keynesian - the government should intervene in the economy to enable the improvement of equal rights
Meritocracy - individuals should be able to achieve success in society based upon their merits and not other factors
such as wealth, this therefore supports equal opportunity
Social contract theory - the idea that the states power is set up with the agreement that individuals will respect the laws
which will protect them
State Economy Private space Liberty
Classical liberalism All liberals to some Minimal states A minimal state is Classical liberals
extent believe that support laissez-faire one where the state believe in negative
the state is economy does not infringe on freedom believing
incompatible with personal realm less state
individual liberty The market is able intervention is good
to allocate scarce Individuals are enabling individuals
Classical liberals resources most entitled to private to be more self
believe in a minimal effectively space without a reliant and
state moral code being responsible
State control of the imposed by the state
A minimal state has market does not Classical liberals
the structure to allocate resources to For example, the believe that people
maintain order those who value first amendment are too dependent to
, through the likes of them most, and so protects freedom of place their personal
laws but is limited the economy does speech and religion issues and failures
in regards to not run effectively on the state rather
economy and liberty than accept personal
of the individual Free trade and tariff responsibility
Modern liberalism Modern liberals Modern liberals Modern liberals
support an enabling believe in free believe in positive
state that provides market capitalism to freedom as state
individuals with the distribute resources intervention can
resources which amongst society ensure freedom
may be necessary to
succeed However, they are Positive freedom
aware that structural provides individuals
This kind of state issues may prevent with greater
therefore helps this - these may opportunities for
individuals to include poverty, citizens or through
achieve success education and poor the like of policies
rather than forcing health which can reduce
them social barriers such
Therefore state as poverty,
This supports intervention education and the
governmental therefore enables the likes of
intervention which correction of market unemployment
helps people failure
The origins of liberalism
It can be suggested that liberalism’s roots lie responsibly in the Reformation - a religious movement which affected
much of Northern Europe between the 15th and 16th century. Protestantism argued that individuals were able to seek
communication with God in order to understand his commands without the reliance of priests, popes as well as other
religious figures. Luther promoted this belief through printed press arguing that Christianity could now assume a more
individualist characteristic where each person can develop a relationship with God however they desire. However, it
was the Enlightenment period (an intellectual period under Charles I) which developed these religious ideas into
politics. The belief however developed following the Independence of America in 1776 as well as the French
Revolution of 1789. The Enlightenment was defined by a belief in reason rather than faith promoting questioning and
debate or anything which may be unthinkingly unacceptable. This idea developed into the concept that every
individual is somebody with free will who is the best judge of their self interest and the actions which shape their
lives. John Locke - the father of liberalism - began to question the relationship between individuals and the
government, seeking to define why and how individuals should defer to those who govern them. During the 17th
century, this was revolutionary as the natural form of government had always been monarchical with the ‘Divine Right
of Kings’ establishing the king as superior in regards to his subjects. Locke and others believed that every individual
held the power of logic, calculation as well as deduction and therefore had the capability to create a political system
base
John Locke, 1632 to 1704
Locke’s 1690 book, Two Treatises of Government is generally considered as being the foundation of liberal thinking
with him as being its father.
- Locke denied the mediaeval belief in the Divine Right of Kings believing that the state was not a creation of
God. He believed that individuals were not subjects, and that a ‘true state’ would be one created by mankind
to represent mankind’s interests with a leading figure arising with the consent of the governed.
- Locke believed that prior to the establishment of the state, there was a ‘natural society’ which served
mankind’s interests known as the “state of nature” which was guided by rationalism and ‘natural laws’.
‘Natural liberties’ and ‘natural rights.’ This state would be beneficial to man who would not consider its
removal nor adjustment. The modern ‘state of law’ would therefore be seen as improving an essentially
tolerable situation by resolving disputes between individuals to which the ‘state of nature’ would be unable
to involve itself in.
, - Locke believed the ‘state of law’ would only be legitimate if it respected natural rights and natural laws.
Locke’s ideal state would reflect the principles that its citizens had consented to accept the state’s ruling in
return for the state's improvement of human condition - the social contract theory.
- Because of its construal nature, the state would have to embody a limited government (limited to always
representing the interest of the governed and requiring the ongoing consent of the governed.) This
limitability would be managed through the dispersal of its powers - checks and balance, and separation of
powers.
Human nature
Traditional liberal thinkers believed that human nature has a huge capacity to bring about process and an unending
ability to create human happiness. We are guided by reason and rationality and therefore are able to calculate answers
to mankind’s greatest problems. Mankind's natural reason is manifested in debate, discussion and peaceful argument
as well as the measured examination of ideas and opinions. Instead of accepting whatever life offers as being the ‘will
of God’ or ‘fate’ - individuals have the capacity to establish their own future and outcomes. Human nature enables us
to shape our destinies. Human problems are therefore challenges awaiting reasoned solutions. If humans want
something, they have the ability to achieve it through reason and determination. Individuals are naturally self-seeking
and self-serving, establishing their association to egotistical individualism (human beings are selfishly drawn to the
advancement of their interests) as well as naturally drawn to a situation where they are independent and in charge of
their own destiny. Yet it is rationally which stops this leading to destructive selfishness and competition. Individuals
are egotistical and reasonable, aware of others therefore making us self aware.
Society
Liberalism’s view of human nature informs the liberal view about whether society could truly exist without a state. In
his work Leviathan (1651), Thomas Hobbes argues that human nature is so brutally selfish that no society could truly
survive if it was to not be retrained by a formal authority - or a state. Contrastingly, Locke cited the existence of
natural society, with natural laws and natural rights as being superior to the state. John Stuart Mill emphasised during
the mid seventeenth century, that the main purpose of a civilised society - natural or manufactured - is to facilitate
individualism. In his work On Liberty (1859), he specified that freedom from any dependency on others and the
freedom to live one’s life in a way that maximises self reliance and fulfilment. The foundation of society is to focus
upon individual freedom and any of which is unable to provide this, is dysfunctional.
The economy
Liberals believe that the ownership of property is a natural right, and it is inevitable that liberalism places property
ownership as the heart of the economic arrangements. Therefore, it is inevitable that liberals support capitalism.
Following Adam Smith’s theory of markets in The Wealth of Nation (1776), liberalism has been highly associated
with private enterprise and private ownership which explains why capitalism is known as being economic liberalism.
In making his case for free market economics, Adam Smith asserted that if obstacles were ‘swept away’, the invisible
hand or market forces would guide traders towards success enabling wealth to “trickle down” to everybody, and the
wealth of nations would be globally promoted.
The liberal state: origins
Although the state of nature is romanticised, liberals nevertheless accept that there would have been clashes of interest
between individuals pursuing their own egotistical agendas. Locke knew that without a formal structure which only a
state could provide, such clashes - particularly regarding property - would not be resolved. A mechanism state is
therefore required to arbitrate effectively between the competing claims or rational individuals. Although the state of
nature appears idealistic, it is still inferior to the formalised state which liberals recommend.
The liberal state: objectives
Although the justified reasonings for a liberal state would be effective to resolve disputes of individuals, Locke and
other liberal thinkers wanted to show this state as being wider and grander in regards to principles. The principles of
which were fundamentally developed following the 1689 Bill of Rights, the establishment of the American
Constitution in 1781 as well as the French Revolution in 1789. These events redefined the ideology.
Rejection of the traditional state
