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A-Level Politics Paper 1, 2 and 3
- Module
- Paper 1, 2 and 3
- Institution
- PEARSON (PEARSON)
Pearson Edexcel Politics notes for Paper 1, 2 and 3
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2022 Politics Paper 1 PlansTo What Extent Do Conservatives Agree Over Human Nature?
Agree : Negative human nature
- All branches of conservatism believe that human nature is negative, to some extent.
- Hobbes said that human nature is highly destructive and life is 'nasty, brutish and short'
(English Civil War). Believed when not controlled, people do chaotic things, which must
be constrained by a Leviathan State, which focuses on order for its people.
- Oakeshott (ON), people are imperfect for 3 reasons. They are flawed intellectually due to
rational decisions, driven by base instincts such as greed and attracted to abstract
ideals. This compliments Hobbes' idea that humans are naturally destructive and must
be controlled to ensure peace and stability.
- New Right thinkers didn't have a fully positive view of human nature as Nozick believed
in a minarchist state to constrain the worst of human nature (understood Oakeshott’s
human imperfection argument). Rands 'Non-Aggression Principle’ showed she believed
humans could harm each other and disrupt order which must be constrained for people’s
individual rights.
Agree : Who should lead human nature
- Oakeshott : believed in a paternalistic+pragmatic state that guides people -> should
combat conditions like lack of education, wealth inequalities that may create disorder.
- Burke : advocated elite patrician class that has a duty to organise and lead society to
maintain order and structure -> believed organic institutions (church) can improve
behaviour via family values, self reliance, ethical and charitable behaviour. ‘Noblesse
Oblige’ showed his belief that there are people who are more intellectually enlightened
and rational who help those who are less fortunate.
Disagree : Human potential and positive human nature
- Rand : positive view of human nature in comparison to traditional and ON. Rejected
Burke’s encouragement of faith based thinking -> believed only objective and rational
thinking would maximise human potential. Thought ON thinking was unethical self
sacrifice as she promoted individualism.
- Nozick : positive view, agreed that people must be freed from the state or any elite class
control in order to reach full potential.
- Rand : opposed Hobbes’ Leviathan state as it shows the absolute worst of human nature
( Nozick's theory that the state shows the negative side of human nature as they
enslave, kill+tax).
Disagree : Constraining human nature
- Rand : believed state should be as minimal as possible with very few restraints placed
by limited state as some humans are tyrannical or destructive. Believed humans must
live in their own self interest without restraint socially or economically unless they are
limiting others individual rights.
- Traditional C’s (Burke) : Traditional institutions of Law+Order are necessary to ensure
societal progress (empiricism) e.g. police, prisons, intelligence services + military.
- Hobbes : argued there is no reason to overthrow a state which opposes Rands view that
a state shouldnt repress the rights of its citizens (authoritarianism could be justified to
, protect rights of majority) -> used by modern c’s to justify 2003 Iraq War to bring order
after 9/11.
To What Extent Do Conservatives Agree Over Society and Class?
Agree : Social Inequality
- All believe differences in status+wealth are a natural part of society.
- Traditional+ON : believe intellect, conscience and judgement aren’t distributed evenly
and those with enhanced talent should rule ( patrician class ). -> Cameron cutting
income tax for wealth from 50-45% in 2010-16.
- Oakeshott : wished to maintain privileges of elite in order to prevent revolution of the
poor.
- Rand+Nozick : believed inequality is just if wealth is acquired lawfully. (Nozick believed
taxation is theft due to self ownership)
- All traditions reject class equality.
Agree : Organic Society
- Traditional+ON : believe in traditionalism+organic society.
- Burke+Oakeshott : traditional institutions are an accumulation of wisdom of past
generations and hold answers to solve current societal problems.
- -> Traditional C’s supporting Monarchy as it brings order and moral compass.
- -> ON C’s defend grammar and church schools as they educate their poor and keep
order.
- ^ both traditions support traditional marriage (enables economic stability for families).
Oppose rationalism+radical change ‘change to conserve’.
Disagree : Social mobility vs Noblesse Oblige
- Traditional+ON : defend existing order and privileges of elite. Noblesse Oblige is
celebrated as a noble elite that should paternalistically guide the nation through ethical
conduct and charity. -> Defend hierarchical institutions e.g. House of Lords.
- New Right : prefers atomistic approach where society is based on merit without classes
defining people. Rand celebrated entrepreneurship rather than class elites (e.g. Steve
Jobs+Mark Zuckerburg).
- Nozick : rejected patrician class and their guiding of society through laws and instead he
promoted complete self-ownership.
Disagree : Social Welfare state vs Individualism
- Oakeshott : suggested privileges of elite would be under threat of society split into ‘two
nations’ -> patrician elites should ensure masses aren’t attracted to utopian ideals of
equality ( do this by sharing proceeds of economic growth by taxing wealthy to pay for
poor ).
- ON C’s in the Johnson government claimed to be ‘party of the NHS’.
- Traditional and New Right : reject taxation policy as traditional believe it is ‘surrender to
socialism’ and new right think it violates individual sovereignty and argue for privatisation
of welfare state.
To What Extent Do Conservatives Agree Over Economic Ideas And Policies?
Agree : State intervention in economics
, - Traditional (Hobbes) : advocate Leviathan state that manages the economy to ensure
order. -> Free market can lead to economic disaster (30’s Depression, 2008 Recession).
Influence of powerful corporations must be constrained by law+taxation -> profits will be
used to make order in military, courts, intelligence services. Argue for higher military
budgets.
- ON : argue for pragmatic approach to economics, combination of free market with a
state that intervenes to prevent emergence of 2 nations. Agreed with paternalistic state
governing lives of people via economy -> agreed with Hobbes thag a part state
managed economy was needed to ensure social order. (Johnson promised to ‘level up
the north’, Cameron accepted need for higher healthcare spending via keynesian
economics)
Agree : Capitalism
- Burkean Traditionals+New Right (Rand+Nozick): all advocate free market capitalism.
- Burkean C’s : see capitalism as an organic system that generates growth+wealth. When
natural inequalities occur, Noblesse Oblige can fulfill their social duties. -> Bill Gates
donating money to help Malaria.
- Rand : argued for pure economic freedom. Idea of ‘ethical egoism’ -> people are better
off in society yet won’t let the rest of society suffer. Believed ‘heroic’ entrepreneurs were
able to flourish under capitalism to drive society forwards.
- Nozick : argued for a minarchist state that allows capitalism to regulate itself without
state intervention.
Disagree : On who should solve economic issues
- Burkean C’s : ‘little platoons’ e.g. Churches and charities to solve issues such as poverty
and wealth inequality as they prefer a laissez-faire approach to capitalism as the state
should justify social inequality.
- Hobbes : believed the state should intervene as he believed the free market can lead to
economic disaster and social disorder that must be constrained by the Leviathan state.
Disagree : Pure economic freedom vs Noblesse Oblige
- New Right : believe in pure economic freedom, everyone should be able to keep their
money as long as it has been acquired lawfully.
- Burkean C’s : believed elite upper classes are noblesse oblige and are obliged to donate
some of their wealth to help the less fortunate. -> Therefore there isn’t pure economic
freedom as there is societal expectation to give money away.
- ON : accept the need for taxation to ensure full employment+economic growth through
govt spending -> contrasts Nozick's statement that ‘taxation is theft’.
To What Extent Do Conservatives Agree Over The Role Of The State?
Agree : Importance of having a state
- All branches recognise the need for some type of state.
- Hobbes : Leviathan state that’s almost authoritarian in nature to ensure order. -> seen in
the criminal justice system and intelligence systems where citizens are monitored to
prevent unlawful behaviour.
- Oakeshott : paternalistic state with powers exerted from above which governs in the
interests of the people.
, - Nozick : preferred minarchist state with limited authority but some intervention to prevent
the worst of human nature.
- Rand : non-aggression principle -> state shouldn’t limit anyone’s individual rights unless
they are limiting rights of others.
Agree : States duty to protect and guide
- Traditional (Burke) : state should fulfil ‘social contract’ with citizens by protecting them
from each other. -> preserve order as life is ‘nasty, brutish and short’ ( Hobbes ).
- Oakeshott : a paternalistic state should guide people to make decisions that would
benefit them and society. -> Cameron emphasises the importance of community.
Disagree : Paternalism vs Individual Rights
- Oakeshott : paternalistic state deflects how a father may guide his son and look after him
to live the moral objectives he believes in.
- Rand : hated paternalism and urged people to think as individuals and take personal
responsibility.
- Nozick : believed those who accepted the authority of the state were ‘enslaved’ and the
state often represented the worst of human nature. Anti-permissiveness laws are
considered a violation of human rights.
Disagree : Belief systems
- Rand : believed state should not promote any religious or moral virtue as it is up to
individuals to develop their own rational belief systems.
- Burke : traditional institutions should be updated and preserved in order to support
religious virtue.
- Oakeshott : believed state should place an emphasis on promoting moral virtue among
the citizenry.
To what extent do Conservatives agree over ideas?
Conservatives agree to a notable extent over ideas. Traditional conservatives such as Burke
and Hobbes, and One Nation conservative Oakeshott all hold a negative image surrounding
human nature, New Right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick also hold this negative view yet
there are differences due to the beliefs of how human nature should be constrained. There is
slight agreement regarding society and class as all thinkers believe differences in status and
wealth are a natural part of society however there is some disagreement in response to
individualism and welfare. There is a wide range of agreement from Burke and new right
thinkers when focusing on capitalism. Lastly there is agreement from all of the thinkers when
highlighting the importance of a state in ensuring order however there remains some slight
disagreement over paternalism from the state.
Para 1: Ideas on human nature
- Hobbes believed human nature is “nasty, brutish and short” and believed that without
control from the state people would do chaotic things.
- Burke believed wealth inequalities could cause disorder meaning a state must control
this and combat it.
- Oakeshott believes people are imperfect in 3 ways -> intellectually due to rational
decisions, driven by base instincts (greed), and attracted to abstract ideals. Supports
Hobbes' idea that humans are naturally destructive.
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