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Summary of A-Level and AS content
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Diagrams, content, equations and tables of both years of content
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STANDARD UNITS1cm2 = 100mm2 = .0001m2
1m2=10,000cm2
1cm3 = 1,000mm3 = .000001m3
1m3 =1,000,000cm3
Speed/velocity ms-1 distance/time
Acceleration ms-2 distance/time2
Area m2 length2
Volume m3 length3
Density kgm-3 mass/volume
Force kgm-2 // N mass x acceleration
Work kgm2s-2 // Nm // J force x displacement
Power kgm2s-3 // Js-1 / N work done/time
femto f 10-15
pico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro μ 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012
Cube bxhxw Cylinder r2 x π x h
Sphere 4/3 x r3 x π Cone r2 x π x 1/3h
Pyramid (b x h)/3
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,PARTICLES
BACKGROUND
1904: Plum pudding model by JJ Thompson
Inconsistencies found so Rutherford proposed Gold leaf experiment, carried out by Geiger and
Marsden which discovered solar system layout
COMPOSITION
(1917 Rutherford) Proton +1.6x10-19 +1 1.673x10-27
(1932 Chadwick) Neutron 0 0 1.675x10-27
-19
(1897 Thompson) Electron -1.6x10 -1 9.11x10-31
(1907 Rutherford) Neutron and proton Gold foil experiment
Specific charge: Charge/Mass : Q/m : Ckg-1
A
ZX A nucleon // Z proton or electron // A-Z neutrons // A&Z stay the same throughout radiation
ISOTOPES
Same proton number but a varying nucleon number with no overall charge
All atoms have isotopes
IONS
When atoms have an overall charge so they aren’t normal/stable
Cross sectional area – Likely hood of collision
ANTIMATTER
All the antiparticles
Positron – electron
Same mass and characteristics
Opposite charge, baryon number, lepton number and strangeness
If made from quarks the antiparticle is made from the antiquarks
RADIATION
Alpha: 2 protons and 2 neutrons joined together
Beta: neutron into a proton, electron and antineutrino
Gamma: Protons and neutrons loose energy and emit a gamma ray
Radiation from the sun to the Earth is radiation faux density.
If there is a distance, r, from the source of radiation, then it will spread out in all directions (4πr2)
SPARK COUNTER
Hertz set up the first transmitter, receiver and generator
Alpha radiation only, they ionise the air, charged particles create a spark which jumps between the
gauze and 5000v wire, spark can be seen/heard which shows it has short range in air
PLANCK
E=hf quanta/quantum are units of fundamental energy
PARTICLES
Antiparticles aren’t common
12 fundamental particles (3 main (electron, up/down (heavier) quark)) and 4 exchange particles
Proton – Up, Up, Down Neutron – Up, Down, Down
BOSONS
Exchange protons and fundamental particles
Electromagnetic – virtual photon Charge: 0 Mass:0
Between charged particles
Repulsive (basketball analogy)
Attractive (b.ball with elastic)
1/r2 – photons strength (dx2 -> force x-4)
Virtual as only exist only during exchange which is very quick
Strong Nuclear Force – Gluon Charge: 0 Mass: 0
Between nucleons (Hadrons)
2
, Gluons between quarks // Pions between Baryons
Hold nucleus together
137x stronger than electromagnetic
Attractive up to 3fm
Repulsive below 0.4fm (distance between atoms in nucleus)
Equilibrium at 0.4fm with no force after 3fm
Gravity – graviton Charge: 0? Mass: 0?
Between particles with mass
Weakest of all 4 forces
Can’t theoretically be proven
Weak Nuclear Force – W+, W-, Z0 Charge: +e,-e, 0 Mass: 82. 82, 93
Responsible for beta/gamma decay and nuclear fusion
Acts on all particles
W+, W-, Z0 all verified in 1983
1 million times weaker than strong nuclear force
Responsible for β+/β- decay, electron capture and electron/proton collisions
Acts over the range of 10-18 which is 0.1% of the diameter of a proton
Exchange particles are made from ‘borrowed energy’
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle established a particle of mass-energy ΔE could exist for Δt as long
as E.t h
Heavy particle can only exist for a short time while a lighter particle may exist for longer
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Bosons, Quark, Lepton
FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS
Left to right
Particles are arrows
Exchange particles are wavy lines
Time (generally) moves left to right
Particles created/annihilated at vertices where charge must be conserved
Particles made of quarks have the quark lines drawn parallel/ next to each other
Exchange particles (generally) left to right unless indicated by an arrow above
Direction of line doesn’t represent direction
If it is positive and becomes neutral you can think of it as throwing away its positive charge so the
boson will be positive. This is the case in electron capture.
If it is positive and becomes neutral you can think of it as gaining negative to neutralise it so the
boson will be negative. This is the case in electron-proton collisions.
If it is neutral and becomes positive we can think of it either as gaining positive (W+ boson) or losing
negative (W– boson in the opposite direction).
Electron-Proton attraction
Exchange of photons
(Electromagnetic)
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