Lauren Cleveland
Unit 11: Psychological Perspectives
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is a form of learning through association. It takes place when we
associate two stimuli with one another to create an automatic learned response.
This is demonstrated in the ‘Little Albert’ experiment by Watson and Rayner 1920, where
they showed that emotional responses like fear can be learned through classical
conditioning. During the first test baby albert showed no fear towards any of the objects he
was presented with. A metal bar was then struck with a hammer to test his reaction, he
again showed no fear of the loud noise. This is an unconditioned stimulus, this is a natural
response without the need for any learning to have taken place (e.g. a reflex). When the
process of classical conditioning began, the hammer was struck every time Albert reached
for the white rat, causing fear. By the third session Albert showed fear for all white fluffy
objects, this is a trained response (conditioned). Watson and Rayner concluded that classical
conditioning of a fear response to a neutral stimulus is relatively straight forward; Albert
had paired the sound of the hammer and seeing any ‘fluffy white’ object as something to
fear.
Classical conditioning can be used to explain an addict’s illness. For example, those who
have addictions to drugs associate the escapism of the chosen drug with a good feeling, they
are conditioned to feel like this because they pair the two together.
Behaviours that have been acquired through such conditioning can be relearnt by
psychological approaches like counselling and hypnotherapy.
Sarah K has been diagnosed with clinical depression, Simply Psychology states that classical
conditioning proposes depression as ‘learned through associating certain stimuli with
negative emotional states’. Psychological theories of depression, McLeod (2015) [online].
This could indicate that due to her traumatic childhood she has become to believe that no
matter what she does, she cannot improve her ‘situation’. Which may have caused her to
become depressed through associating, for example, emotional ‘situations’ e.g. an
argument with her children or spouse with the same feeling as she had during the abuse
endured as a child.
The influence of classical conditioning can also be seen in phobias like in the case of Simon.
Classical conditioning can be used to explain how a person acquires a phobia. The extreme
fear Simon has of siders could’ve been learned via classical conditioning. For example,
Simon once would’ve had a neutral stimulus towards spiders, this would’ve then been
associated with an unconditional stimulus (something that causes fear). This process then
leads to the response of fear towards the previously neutral stimulus, creating a conditioned
response of fear, forming a phobia. This process is demonstrated in the little albert
experiment. This conditioned response, through classical conditioning, that has been
developed by Simon towards spiders could explain why he cannot sing nursery rhymes or
read stories that include spiders or even look at fake spiders.
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A criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic. Meaning it does not
allow for any degree of free will in the individual. The process does not allow any control of
the individual over their own reactions learned through classical conditioning, such as a
phobia. This restricts free will and uniqueness of individuals to pave their own destiny.
However, this behavioural approach is scientific and its key principles can be measure in an
objective way. For example, the phobia developed by the Little Albert experiment was
measured and the variables could be manipulated and controlled to ensure the phobia
development was a result of a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned
response. This is a positive because it allows concepts such as classical conditioning to be
demonstrated scientifically with evidence for others to see. Which can further help support
development of behavioural therapies.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a form of learning through which behaviour is shaped by
consequences. An association is made between a behaviour and a consequence, depending
on the consequence, the probability of an action being repeated is either increased or
decreased.
Reinforcement is a consequence of a behaviour, this increases the likelihood of behaviour
being repeated. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by a pleasant
consequence, e.g. a reward, a positive comment, a smile. Negative reinforcement occurs
when a behaviour is followed by the removal of a negative stimulus, e.g. removal of pain/
discomfort/ something unpleasant.
A punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Positive punishment
occurs when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence, e.g. harsh words,
criticism, points on driving license.
Negative punishment occurs when behaviour is followed by the removal of something
pleasant, e.g. being fired (removal of money), banned from driving.
This was established in an experiment by Skinner (1932), he showed how positive
reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in a box. The rats first accidentally pressed
the lever in the cage, causing food to drop into a dish. After repeating the action, the rats
saw that they could receive food by pressing the lever (learnt behaviour). So, when the rats
were rewarded, they were conditioned to repeat this positive action to continue being
rewarded. He concluded that it only took one reinforcement to change the rats’ behaviour
immediately.
For example, a child may learn to clean his room regularly because he will be rewarded with
extra TV time, every time he cleans up. Therefore, the child has created an association with
cleaning his room and gaining extra time watching TV. This consequence is a positive
reinforcement that makes the child more likely to tidy their room.
An employee getting criticized in front of the whole office by his boss and having certain
privileges taken away as a consequence to his bad behaviour at work may motivate him to
have a better attitude. This is an example of negative punishment, the employee having
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pleasant privileges removed as result of poor behaviour, should make him less likely to
behave in such a way again.
Lewinsohn 1974 expresses operant conditioning ‘stating that depression is caused by the
removal of positive reinforcement from the environment’. Psychological theories of
depression, McLeod (2015) [online]. This could be relevant to Sarah who suffers from
depression. Certain life events like a loved one dying or losing employment, can induce
depression because positive reinforcement has been lost. In such situations, this can cause
maladaptive behaviour to be reinforced like suicidal thoughts which is what Sarah suffers
with which could be due to her depression. Also, if Sarah lacks social skills (which she might
due to her abusive childhood), it’s said by Lweinsohn 1974 that she my then find it difficult
to make the adjustments needed to look for new and alternative sources of reinforcement.
If this happens this can lead to a negative downward spiral. Psychological theories of
depression, McLeod (2015) [online]. This theory of operant conditioning could be used to
explain her psychological disorder. However, while this theory offers an explanation where
the cause of depression is known, it can be problematic where the underlying cause is
undefined, also fails to take into account the influence of cognition on an individual’s mood.
Operant conditioning can explain how phobias like Simons are maintained. For behaviourists
once a phobia has been acquired through classical conditioning, individuals then exhibit
avoidance responses which are behaviours that lessen that chances of contact with the fear,
for example, spiders. Which in turn reduces the feeling of worry/ panic. Therefore, these
avoidance responses are reinforced, making them more likely to occur again. This can be
seen in Simons case where he refuses to walk past Halloween shops, in doing so he is
avoiding the chance of seeing a sider and further preventing an anxiety attack.
The behavioural approach of phobias can be criticised for being deterministic. For example,
when an individual experiences a traumatic event and uses this event to draw an association
between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned response they will go on and develop a
phobia. The behavioural approach suggests that complex mental disorders like depression
and phobias are caused solely by a person’s experience of association. This is a weakness
because this theory of phobias suggests that we are programmed by environmental
experiences and ignores individual free will. For example, if a person is bitten by a dog this
negative experience may not cause them to develop a phobia of dogs.
It also doesn’t take into account other factors such as childhood experiences, everyday
stressors and a person’s genes in the development of a psychological disorder. Some would
therefore argue that operant conditioning is too simplistic because of this factor.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory was proposed by Albert Bandura to explain how learning often
occurs without direct reinforcement. Instead, a behaviour can be learned indirectly just by
observing and imitating an individual whose behaviour has been reinforced.
Imitation is more likely to occur when the observer identifies with the model. The observer
may perceive the model to be similar to them or the observer may respect or admire the
model. A behaviour is also more likely to be imitated if the observer witness’s reinforcement
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