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Summary test 1 Research Methodology and Descriptive Statistics - Premaster Business Administration 2024/2025 - University of Twente
Pre-master Psychology - Research Methodology & Descriptive Statistics Summary Units test 1
Summary test 2 Research Methodology and Descriptive Statistics - Premaster Business Administration - University of Twente
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Research Methodology And Descriptive Statistics (202001402)
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Research Meth and Description Statistics
Lecture 1 – what is empirical research
After this unit, you will be able to...
• Explain what is meant with empirical research and which steps can be taken according to the wheel of science;
• Differentiate between induction and deduction;
• Recognize and explain the steps that can be taken in the decision making process;
• Explain the relationship between systematic decision making and systematically answering empirical questions;
• Formulate a relevant research question in the context of a specific phase in a decision making process;
• Recognize and mention examples of confirmation bias;
• Explain how systematic empirical research helps avoiding the confirmation bias.
Key terms
• Research question
• Design and (cycle of) decision-making
• Problem & need analysis
• Ex ante evaluation
• Process evaluation
• Ex post evaluation (effect / impact research)
• Wheel of science / empirical cycle
• Deduction
• Induction
• Confirmation bias
What is empirical research?
Where does knowledge come from?
Example: How do we know the earth is sphere?
Research question: How is earth shaped? → Conclusion: Earth is sphere.
Different types of research questions require different ways of finding the answer
1. Normative questions > what is justifiable and it can’t be answered by observations only.
- Should we allow euthanasia for demented people?
- To what extent should we reduce the ‘autonomy’ of ‘mentally challenged’ people ‘for their own ‘benefit’?
2. Conceptual questions > meaning of a word, it often starts with “what is”.
- What is democracy?
- What is intellectual efficiency?
3. Empirical questions > require thinking and observations
- How many people support euthanasia for demented people?
- Is democracy creating more economic growth than dictatorships?
- Which apps help people to manage their work/life balance?
Empirical questions = systematically answering questions using observations.
Meaning of the words in the definition:
• Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer we give (not just that
we may be wrong).
• Empirical: it is about things we can observe.
• Observations: about things we can observe by using our senses, using things we can observe.
Examples:
- How intelligent are people? Are there differences in intelligence between men and women?
- How likely is it that a convicted criminal commits another crime?
, - What is the job satisfaction among employees at this university?
- Does collective brainstorming give you more new ideas to solve a problem, than individually writing things
down?
Two main types of empirical research questions:
1. Descriptive > Are about describing facts, either at one point in time or over time. (What is…)
2. Explanatory > Are about explaining the causes for something. (Why is…)
3. Predictive questions > not causal and descriptive > when there is a complex connection between A&B and you
can only make a prediction.
Where do empirical questions come from:
• Curiosity
• Science: follow up existing theories and puzzles > “if this I true, maybe that is true too”.
• Decision-making; try to solve problems > ‘How to’ questions can be ‘broken up’ into descriptive and
explanatory research questions.
‘How to’ questions can be ‘broken up’ into descriptive and explanatory research question = decision making
1. Problem & need analysis
- How big is the problem?
- What are its causes?
- What are its consequences?
2. Find & design options
- Which options have been used by others?
3. Ex ante options evaluation
- Can we expect the option to work?
4. Choice
5. Implementation
- Did we do what we planned? (Process evaluation)
6. Ex post choice evaluation
- Did the selected option have the expected outcome?
(Outcome evaluation)
Example: sustainability
How to increase ‘sustainable’ behaviour in the Dutch population?
Which descriptive and explanatory questions can be asked and answered, which may contribute to solving this problem?
Normative and conceptual questions about sustainability
Conceptual questions:
• Is focusing on sustainability import? Why?
• What do we mean with sustainability? = Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.
Normative questions:
• Why are future generations important?
1. Problem & need analysis
- To what extent do people behave sustainable? Which individuals/groups do that most and why?
2. Find & design options
- Which policies/measures have been used thus far to increase sustainability?
3. Ex ante options evaluation
- Which measures have been used in other countries?
- Will a possible new policy work?
4. Choice
5. Implementation
- Was the plan implemented as planned? If not, why not?
6. Ex post choice evaluation
- Did our policy increase sustainable behaviour?
, How to answer empirical research questions?
Why are some people behaving sustainable, while other people do not?
Sustainable = part of sustainable behaviour is cooperative behaviour
Procedure
Think Maybe internalization of specific social norms helps to
increase sustainable behaviour.
Plan Do an experiment in which some people are stimulated
to internalize.
Observe (Do as planned and) observe possible differences.
Analyse Wow, it works (or not)
Words researchers use
Think Theory > look for literature, arguments. We discuss what is probably true.
Plan Research design > we want to test the idea. We want to make sure that we are not
wrong and that another answer is better. How we can test what we think.
Observe Data collection
Analyse & conclude Data analysis
Wheel of science
• Not a logistical sequence of steps; anything goes
• A way to defend conclusions; logical
Induction We observe a specific phenomenon, compare it with
Inductive several other yet similar phenomena and on the basis of
this comparison arrive at some general idea about why
things happen. We know nothing and we begin with
looking for information.
➢ From an observation/data to a theory
Deduction We start with thinking. This thinking often starts with
Deductive general ideas about why things happen generally and are
made more specific in the context of a specific topic. The
more expectations are then tested using data.
➢ From a theory to a confirmation
Conspiracy & confirmation bias
Conspiracy theories (complot theorie) = a special type of argumentation
The start is often simple and sometimes plausible
• Vaccination causes autism
• Covid-19 is produced in a laboratory as biological weapon
Often indicated by words like:
• “I want to prove”
• “I will look for articles that show what I have in mind”
Confirmation bias = finding the answers that we ‘want to’ find that confirm pre-existing beliefs’ or favoured hypotheses
by ignoring evidence and/or avoiding critical evaluation. It affects what we think is true.
Consequences of confirmation bias
• Mistakes in knowledge
• Bad decisions
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