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Summary Paper Two - AQA Psychology
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- Psychology Paper Two (7182)
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- AQA
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ApproachesOrigins of Psychology
ORIGINS
Psychology is a relatively new scientific discipline with roots in 17th and early 19th century philosophy.
Early influences included Rene Descartes, and his concept of Cartesian dualism, which simply means
that the mind and body are separate entities, the brain is not the same as the mind.
The work of John Locke and his concept of empiricism, the belief that all knowledge is derived from
sensory experience and can be studied using the scientific method also had an influence on the
emergence of psychology as a science.
Evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin set the stage for the emergence of psychology as we know it
today.
WILHELM WUNDT
In 1873 Wilhelm Wundt published the first book on psychology ‘Principles of Physiological
Psychology’ and in 1879 opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. He is often
considered to be ‘the father of psychology’. His approach to psychology was to study the structure of
the human mind, by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements, hence his approach became
known as structuralism.
Wundt used introspection to investigate the human mind. Introspection comes from Latin and means
‘looking into’. Participants were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them.
Wundt established psychology as a science by using the scientific method.
INTROSPECTION
Introspection relies primarily on non-observable responses and although participants can report
conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors relating to their
behaviour.
Introspection produced data that was subjective, so it became very difficult to establish general
principles. This means that introspective experimental results are not reliably reproduced by other
researchers.
In contrast, the early behaviourists such as Pavlov and Thorndike were achieving reliably reproducible
results and discovering explanatory principles that could be easily generalised to all human beings
Introspection may not seem particularly scientific, but it is still used today to gain access to cognitive
processes.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Wundt’s new ‘scientific’ approach to psychology was based on two major assumptions.
All behaviour is seen as being determined. If behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to
predict how human beings would behave in different conditions.
This technique used to explore these assumptions became known as the scientific method. The
scientific method refers to the use of investigative methods that are:
● Objective
● Systematic
● Replicable
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY EVALUATION
Causes of behaviour can be established through the use of methods that are empirical and replicable
Scientific knowledge is self-corrective meaning that it can be refined or abandoned
Much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be measured with any
degree of accuracy.
,WUNDT EVALUATIONS
Discussion of the subjectivity of Wundt’s methods in contrast to the objectivity of the scientific process
and the difficulty modern psychologists have trying to objectively study unobservable matter.
Introspective methods were not reliably reproduced/Wundt’s difficulty with replication due to
subjectivity.
Focus on mental processes through introspection can be seen as a forerunner of the cognitive
approach.
Discussion of the validity of introspection – many aspects of our minds are outside of our conscious
awareness, eg research by Nisbett and Wilson, 1977; however, it is still sometimes used in modern
scientific psychological research, eg Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003
Greater contributions to the development of psychology by early behaviourists, eg Pavlov, than by
Wundt, as they produced reliable findings with explanatory principles that were generalisable – much
more in keeping with the scientific approach.
Behaviourism - The Learning Approaches
LEARNING APPROACH ASSUMPTIONS
All behaviour is learned and all we have at birth is the capacity to learn
A person is the product of their environment and born a black slate (tabula rasa)
The learning approach is at the extreme ‘nurture’ end of the nature-nurture debate
Argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can
be objectively measured rather than things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred.
This approach is scientific
Implication is that all things that can be learned can be unlearned
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - PAVLOV
Classical conditioning is learning through association
Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was
repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.
First the dogs were presented with the food (unconditioned stimulus) and they salivated
(unconditioned response). The dogs were then presented with the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus)
and the dogs did not salivate (no conditional response).
Then Pavlov sounded the bell whilst giving the dogs some food. This resulted in the dogs salivating
(unconditional response). Pavlov carried this out a few times and eventually the dogs were presented
with the sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus) and began to salivate (conditioned response) despite
not being given any food.
OPERANT CONDITIONING - SKINNER
Learning through consequences
Operant Conditioning Principles:
● Positive reinforcement - increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by giving pleasant
consequences (add something)
● Negative reinforcement - increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by removing
something unpleasant (take something away)
● Punishment - decreasing the frequency of an undesired behaviour by giving unpleasant
consequences.
Skinner placed a hungry rat in a cage and every time he activated a lever, a food pellet fell in the food
dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times
of being put in the box. This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the
behaviour being repeated.
In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subject to an uncomfortable
electric current. As the rat moved around the cage, the rat hit the lever, and the electric current was
,immediately switched off (negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever
after a few times of being put in the box. This suggests that negative reinforcement increased the
likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
When and how often we reinforce a behaviour can have a significant impact on the strength and rate
of the response.
● Continuous reinforcement: the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs,
may result in a stronger response.
● Partial reinforcement: the response is reinforced only part of the time. Weaker effect.
THORNDIKE’S ‘LAW OF EFFECT’
Behaviourism (particularly operant conditioning) closely follows the principles of Thorndike’s ‘Law of
Effect’. This basic premise of this law states…
● Any behaviour that is rewarded will likely be repeated.
● Any behaviour that is punished means the connections to the situation will become weaker,
and the behaviour of response is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated. This
leads to extinction of the behaviour.
STIMULUS GENERALISATION
Stimulus generalisation is the ability to behave in a new situation in a way that has been learned in
other similar situations. This is mainly seen in phobias, when stimulus-generalisation leads the phobia
to be generalised out to other similar stimuli (e.g. Little Albert’s generalisation of a white rat out to
anything white and fluffy).
ONE TRIAL LEARNING
The theory of one trial learning states that learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and
stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus.
One trial learning is usually achieved if time contiguity occurs - the concept that the behaviour is
reinforced immediately afterwards, and not some time later.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
When a behaviour that is thought to be extinct suddenly appears again after a short period of time.
For example, Pavlov’s dog’s salivation became extinct after a short period of time if food was not
presented afterwards. They ‘forgot’ the association if it wasn’t kept up.
However, after a period of time, the salivation would return at just the sound of the bell before once
again disappearing if food was not present.
BEHAVIOURISM EVALUATION
It provides a strong counter-argument to the nature side of the nature-nurture debate.
It is very scientific and usually uses controlled experimental methods, and enhances psychology’s
status as a science. It also uses objective measures.
Lab experiments - lack ecological validity - lack mundane realism - not valid
Nomothetic approach - views all behaviour governed by the same laws of conditioning.
Environmentally reductionist - ignores the influences of nature and cognition on behaviour.
Social Learning Theory - The Learning Approaches
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social learning theory is learning through observations.
, According to this model, we watch our role models, rehearse their actions and consider how we would
replicate their behaviour. We also copy same-sex models who we feel show gender appropriate
behaviour.
It involves cognitive processes, implying that we think about things, so it is not simply a case of
stimulus-response (like conditioning is).
There are 3 types of models:
● Live model (what we see)
● Verbal instruction model (what we hear)
● Symbolic models (film stars/characters)
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
● Vicarious Reinforcement - When you observe the consequences of a behaviour in someone
else. If they are rewarded, you are more likely to carry the behaviour out.
● Vicarious Punishment - if the consequences we observe are negative then we will be
motivated to not perform that behaviour and to avoid punishments.
● Imitation - Simply copying a behaviour but not taking on the attitudes and beliefs of the
individual you are copying.
● Role Model Identification - Identifying with someone who you look up to and copying their
behaviour but they know what they are doing and what their actions mean. Usually a
significant person in the individual's life.
● Modelling - Modelling refers to modelling behaviour, eg. The role model shows you how to
behave.
● Mediational Processes - These are the cognitive processes that occur between the
observation of a behaviour and the replication of it. Occur between the stimulus and the
response. Attention – Retention – Reproduction – Motivation
● Identification - Wanting to become like the model and therefore copy behaviours as well as
attitudes.
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES
(the extent to which you will actually copy the behaviour)
● Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behaviour and its consequences and
form a mental representation of the behaviour.
● Retention: Storing the observed behaviour in LTM where it can stay for a long period of time.
Imitation is not always immediate.
● Reproduction: The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to reproduce the
observed behaviour.
● Motivation: Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcements (vicarious
reinforcement) for imitating the observed behaviour that they have seen the model receiving.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY EVALUATION
Valid research - research tends to be scientific and conducted under laboratory experiments (e.g.
Bandura).
Nomothetic approach as it views all behaviour governed by the same laws of conditioning.
Considers thinking processes - may be considered to be more holistic in rejecting stimulus-response
dynamics.
Nurture side of the nature-nurture debate.
Scientific - lab experiments - higher validity.
BANDURA - KEY STUDY
Aim To examine the effect of continual influence of a role model
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