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An entire guide to Research Methods and statistics, complete with annotations, book summary and lecture notes. 60+ pages clear and accurate, easy to read. Indexed.£7.19
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An entire guide to Research Methods and statistics, complete with annotations, book summary and lecture notes. 60+ pages clear and accurate, easy to read. Indexed.
These notes were made by a student who won the excellence award, meaning top scorer across all faculties. The same student is now teaching statistics at master's level and studying precision medicine at King's College. It is a clear, well organised, summarised and correct collection of notes from ...
Eleonora Caiazza Made for tutoring purposes,
Not for public use
STATISTICS
GLOSSARY STATISTICS............................................................................................................................. 2
MEASUREMENTS: VARIABLES, SAMPLE AND QUALITATIVE CRITIQUE ................................................................... 2
EXPERIMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS IN PSYCHOLOGY ............................................................................. 4
VALIDITY ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
QUASI EXPERIMENTS AND NON EXPERIMENTS .................................................................................................... 7
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS .............................................................................................................................. 9
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENT SCALES ......................................................................................... 10
COMPARISON STUDIES .................................................................................................................................... 12
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES ............................................................................................................................ 13
ETHICAL ISSUES .............................................................................................................................................. 14
ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA ...................................................................................................................... 15
STATISTICAL SYMBOLS.................................................................................................................................... 16
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA ........................................................................................................... 16
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA ........................................................................................................... 17
SIGNIFICANCE TESTING ................................................................................................................................... 18
TESTING FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO SAMPLES ....................................................................................... 19
TESTING FOR CATEGORICAL VARIABLES AND FREQUENCY TABLES ..................................................................... 20
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION ..................................................................................................................... 21
MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS (ANOVA) .................................................................................................................. 22
MULTIFACTORIAL ANOVA DESIGNS ............................................................................................................... 24
ANOVA FOR REPEATED MEASURES DESIGNS ................................................................................................... 24
RESULTS WRITE UP ................................................................................................................................ 25
1-WAY BETWEEN ANOVA ............................................................................................................................... 25
1-WAY WITHIN ANOVA .................................................................................................................................. 25
2-WAY MIXED ANOVA .................................................................................................................................... 25
2-WAY BETWEEN ANOVA ............................................................................................................................... 25
2-WAY WITHIN ANOVA .................................................................................................................................. 26
MULTIPLE REGRESSION .................................................................................................................................... 26
THEMATIC ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................................... 26
CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................................................... 26
1-WAY ANOVA .............................................................................................................................................. 26
2-WAY ANOVA .............................................................................................................................................. 30
EXTENDED ANOVA TOPICS .............................................................................................................................. 37
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ................................................................................................................................... 38
SURVEYS: SAMPLES & DESIGN .......................................................................................................................... 45
QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ....................................................................................................... 51
THEMATIC ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................................... 56
OTHER QUALITATIVE APPROACHES ................................................................................................................... 62
1
,Eleonora Caiazza Made for tutoring purposes,
Not for public use
GLOSSARY STATISTICS
Measurements: variables, sample and qualitative critique
Opportunity sample: Don’t use it as the only description of the sample, you should say exactly how people were
recruited
Random sample: Don’t say participants were random unless they really were. How were they recruited? Did all of
them have the exact same probability to be selected?
Reliability: It is not concerned with accuracy of measurements, only consistency
Spelling: “Biased sample” not “sample was bias”!
Large sample: don’t state that the sample should have been larger if you cannot explain why. If the results are
significant you do not need a larger sample unless you want to increase power
Equal probability selection Procedure for producing a sample into which every case in the target population
method (epsem) has an equal probability of being selected.
Hypothetical construct Phenomenon or construct assume to exist, and used to explain observed effects,
but as yet unconfirmed; stays as an explanation of effects while evidence
support it
Mixed methods An approach which combines in terms of the precise procedures taken to
measure it
Participant variables Person variables differing in proportion across different experimental groups,
and possibly confounding results
Population All possible members of a category from which a sample is drawn
Positivism Methodological belief that the wold’s phenomena, including the human
experience and social behaviour, are reducible to observable facts and the
mathematical relationships between them. Includes the belief that the only
phenomena relevant to science are those that can be measured
Qualitative approach Methodological stance gathering qualitative data which usually holds that
information about human events and experiences, if reduced to numerical form,
loses most of its important meaning for research
Qualitative data Information gathered that is not in numerical form
Quantitative approach Methodological stance gathering quantitative data following a belief that science
requires accurate measurements and quantitative data
Quantitative data Information about a phenomenon in numerical form
Random number Number not predictable from those preceding it
2
,Eleonora Caiazza Made for tutoring purposes,
Not for public use
Randomise To put the trials of, or stimuli used in, an experiment into an unbiased sequence,
where prediction of the net item is not possible
Randomly allocate To put people in different conditions of an experiment on a random basis
Reification Tendency to treat abstract concepts as real entities
Reliability Extent to which findings or measures can be repeated with similar results
consistency of measures
SAMPLE Group selected from population for investigation
Biased Sample in which members of a sub group are over or under represented
Cluster Groups in the population selected at random from among other similar groups
and assumed to be representative of a population
Convenience/Opportunity Sample selected because they are easily available for testing
Expert choice See purposive sample below
Haphazard Sample selected from population with no conscious bias (but likely to be not
truly random)
Purposive Non random sampling of individuals likely to be able to make a significant
contribution to the data
collection for a qualitative project wither because their specific experiences or
because of their expertise one a topic
Quota Sample selected, not randomly, but so that specified groups will appear in
numbers proportional to theirs size in the target population
Representative Type of sample aimed at if results of research are to be generalised; it is hoped
that the sample will contain sub groups of people in direct proportion to their
rate of occurrence in the general population
Self selecting Sample selected for study on the basis of members’ own action in arriving at the
sampling point
Simple random Sample selected in which every member of the target population has an equal
chance of being selected and all possible combinations can be drawn
Stratified Sample selected so that specified sub groups will appear in numbers
proportional to their size in the target population; within each sub group cases
are randomly selected
Systematic Sample selected by taking every nth case from a list of the target population;
random if starting point for n is selected at random
Sampling bias (selecting Systematic tendency towards over or under representation of some categories
bias) in a sample
Sampling frame The specified range of people from whom a sample will be drawn. Those within
a population who can be sampled
Target population Similar to sampling frame but more theoretical. The assumed population of
people from which a sample is to be drawn. Very often the aim is to be able to
generalise sample results to this population
3
, Eleonora Caiazza Made for tutoring purposes,
Not for public use
Validity Extent to which instruments measure what they were intended to measure.
Also, extent to which a research effect can e trusted as real or as not
contaminated or confounded
Variable Phenomenon that varies. In psychology usually refers to phenomenon from
which an objected measure has been provided
Experiments and experimental designs in psychology
When looking for the independent variable: Look for the variable that was manipulated by the experimenter. We
know the values of this variable before we start the experiment. Look for the conditions or the separate groups
When looking for the dependent variable: Th dependent variable has values that we cannot know before the
experiment starts since it is a measure of the participants’ performance- Look for measures of what the
participants did or how they scored on a test. All participants will have been measured on this variable
Warning (Exams): If there are two groups it might not mean independent samples: check wheter the design is
repeated measures with the two groups just separated for counterbalancing. The study description should
mention something about the order in which participants took conditions
Matched pairs do not have to be very similar: They do not need to have a lot in common. We usually match only on
a relevant characteristic, for instance, reading ability.
Repeated measures are repeated: For a design to qualify as a repeated measures design there must be two or
more measures o exactly the same kind of participant. If you have two scores for each participants but these are
an extraversion score and a self esteem scoreànot repeated measures.
Asymmetrical order effect Order effect that has greater strength in one particular order and where,
therefore, counterbalancing would be ineffective
Baseline measure Measure of what would occur if no experimental level of the independent
variable were applied; how untreated participants perform
Confounding variable Variable that is uncontrolled and obscures any effects sought, varying with the
independent variable in a systematic manner
Control group Group used as a baseline measure against which the performance of the
experimental group is assessed
Counterbalancing Half participants do condition in a particular order and the other half take the
condition sin the opposite order- this is done to balance possible order effects
Dependent variable Variable that is assumed to be directly affected by changes in the independent
variable in an experiment
Experiment Study in which an independent variable is manipulated under strictly controlled
conditions
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Factorial design Experiment in which more than one independent variable is manipulated
Independent samples Each condition of the independent variable experienced by only one group of
(between groups) participants
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