List of questions:
How significant was the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 to Russia’ economic growth in the years up to
1894? (A level December 2018)
How significant were socialist and Marxist ideas in the growth of opposition to tsarist rule in Russia in the
years 1855 to 1894? (A level November 2020)
How effective were tsarist policies towards ethnic minorities and Jews in strengthening the Russian Empire
in the years 1855 to 1894? (A level November 2021)
How significant was the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 to Russia’ economic growth in the years up to
1894? December 2018
The emancipation of the serfs opened major opportunities for Russia to modernise.’ Assess the validity of
this view.
‘Opposition to the tsarist regime achieved nothing in the years 1861 – 1894.’
The reforms of Alexander II weakened the tsarist regime. Assess the validity.
‘The political authority of the tsarist regime had been weakened by the reforms of Alexander II but was
restored by his son, Alexander III.’ Assess the validity.
How significant was the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 to Russia’ economic growth in the years up to
1894? (A level December 2018)
Emancipation was significant for changing the social structure of the Russian society and creating the workforce for
the development of the industry. However, it failed to bring change in the agriculture, as the harvesting methods
remained backward. Furthermore, the state was a more significant driver of the economic growth, as Economic
Ministers were manually leading the change. Plus, the foreign help made a significant contribution to the
development of the heavy industry.
Change of the social structure (abolition was important)
- some more well-off peasants became kulaks, employing other peasants and exporting the grain surplus
- they, and some nobles contributed to the development of the middle class – a feature of the industrialised
country
- emerging middle class helped to develop the service industries, as some nobles took positions of the doctors,
teachers, bankers, administrators etc.
- peasants became free to move around the country. They often chose to come to towns to work in factories. So,
the working class was becoming more influential.
Limitation of abolition for the agriculture (abolition was not very important)
- there were limited developments in the agriculture, due to the limitations of the term of abolition
- peasants had less than 4 hectares for the crops, which was not even sufficient to feed their big families
- mir retained its influence over the villages, so it was difficult to introduce new initiatives and technologies
- most of the peasants were illiterate, backward and very superstitious (influence by the Church) so they were
reluctant to change their traditional way of harvesting
State driven economic growth (abolition was not very important)
- it was the state that was manually driving the economic change rather than the people and the emerging middle-
class and workers.
- Vyshnegradsky (Alexander III’s Economic Minister) was putting an emphasis on the export of the grain. Because
the peasants were reluctant to share the little amount they had, the police were employed to seize it. Grain
exports increased by 18% by 1891 famine.
- the development of the railway was vital for the economic growth, but it was also driven by the state. By 1980s,
60% of the railway was owned by the state.
, Foreign investment (abolition was not very important)
- without the foreign investment Russia’s economy would not develop
- Witte (Alexander III’s Economic Minister after Vyshnegradsky) negotiated many loans, which funded the
development of Russia’s heavy industry (e.g. Iron in Krivoi Rog)
- foreign experts were invited to Russia: Belgian industrialists helped to organise coalmining in Donbas region
How significant were socialist and Marxist ideas in the growth of opposition to tsarist rule in Russia in
the years 1855 to 1894? November 2020
Marxist ideas were mostly influential under Alexander III due to the intensification of industrialisation and the
increase in the working class. They contributed to the workers’ self-consciousness and outwards demonstrations of
discontent. However, these ideologies were not the most influential in the growing opposition to the tsarist rule.
Radical and populist oppositions were more active and visible and secret Marxist circles, while the Liberal opposition
enjoyed its privilege of being close to the tsar Alexander II and directly influencing him.
Marxists and socialist ideas Other ideologies, ideas
- increase of Russia’s working class, which was more Liberal ideas and opposition
educated than the peasants and engaged into Marxist - emancipation gave some nobles hope for future
reading circles reform
- the rise of Marxism popularity due to Plekhanov’s - reforms of administration and judiciary systems
translation of the Marxist manifesto increased the number of educated professionals, who
- 1891-92 famine demonstrated that socialism and were criticising the government
equal spread of the resources could help to deal with - 1891-92 famine demonstrated that zemstvas were
such crisis in the future more efficient with the poor relief.
This translated into the rise of self-consciousness of the These factors influenced the growth of the liberal
working class, who striked against unsatisfactory opposition, which was demanding national assembly
conditions in the factories, even though Alexander III’s from Alexander II. He eventually agreed to consider
exceptional measures prohibited striking actions. Loris-Melikhov proposals.
Limitation of the Marxist ideology and its popularity Populist ideas
- the industrial drive began mostly under Alexander III, - ‘going to people’ movements in 1874 and 1876 under
so before that populism and beliefs in the power of the the leadership of Lavrov
peasants were more prevalent - took the opposition from secret meetings to action
- most of the workers were not interested in politics, as - although the movements failed due to the hostility of
they were just trying to earn enough money the peasants, Black Partition continued promoting
- Marxism was theoretical – it was only discussed revolutionary ideas through professionals, zemstva to
the peasants.
Radical opposition
- feelings of alienation from the tsarist regime and
dissatisfaction with the extent of reforms
- rise of revolutionary literature: ‘The Catechism of
Revolutionary’ by Nechaev, ‘What is to be done?’ by
Plekhanov
- students were organising in secret circles to discuss
the literature
- People’s Will – established as a radical organisation
which target officials. It planned 5 assassination
attempts on Alexander II and succeeded.
Nationalities
- the wave of national consciousness in the regions of
the Russian Empire
For example, 1963 discontent in Poland due to Russian-
imposed mobilisation and conscription
But the regime was effective in dealing with those
outbursts with the methodological russification –
