4) WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1776-1783
At the Start of War
British & loyalist strengths – 500,000 loyalists, army of 50,000, hired 18,000 hessian soldiers, navy of 300
ships, bases near to colonies (Canada, Newfoundland, Florida, West Indian Islands), natives on their side,
American disunity and weak gov, Howe’s inertia
British & loyalist problems – 4800km away, ¼ of army had less than a year’s experience, Hessians and natives
brutality turned neutral colonists patriot, Lord North uninspiring
American & patriot strengths – committed to glorious cause, over 100,000 militia, commissioned 2000
privateers, knew terrain, guerrilla tactics
American & patriot problems – lacked unity, built army from scratch which never exceeded 20,000 men, no
strong gov, Articles of Confederation adopted in 1777 only had limited powers, economic disruption, unable
to levy taxes
WOI up to 1777
NY (Aug-Dec 1776) – How defeats GW at Battle of Long Island (27 th Aug), split GW forces at Kips Bay,
stalemate, GW allowed to slowly retreat through NJ, Howe tried negotiations with Franklin, Rutledge and
Adams, British capture Fort Washington (Nov), Howe offered pardon to all swearing allegiance to King, Howe
seized Newport (Dec)
Trenton & Princeton (Dec 1776 – Jan 1777) – GW recrossed Delaware with 1600 troops before enlistments
expired (Dec 25th), captured 1000 Hessians at Trenton, then at Princeton (3 rd Jan)
Plan for Albany (June 1777) – How deviated from plan to meet Burgoyne at Albany for joint attack
Philadelphia (July-Oct 1777) – Howe moved 15,000 troops to Chesapeake Bay by sea, defeated GW at
Brandywine Creek (Sept), victory at Paoli allowed How to capture Philadelphia (Sept), congress moved to
Lancaster, GW failed counter-attack at Germantown (Oct), had to abandon forts
Burgoyne’s Campaign (July – Aug 1777) – recaptured Ticonderoga, travelled inhospitable terrain, milita
attacks, three weeks to cover 37km, 600 troops killed at Bennington (Aug), St Ledger’s column forced to
retreat to Canada
Winter at Valley Forge (1777) – lack of food, clothing, supplies, 2000 deaths from disease, Von Steuben – ex
Prussian general sent by Franklin, improved discipline and sanitation
Saratoga (Sept-Oct 1777) – Burgoyne pressed to Albany, Gates there with 7000 American troops, Burgoyne
defeated at Freeman’s Farm (sept) and Bermis Heights (Oct), retreated to Saratoga, no relief from Clinton,
surrendered with 5900 troops – in response Lord North’s conciliatory plan repealing Coercive Acts passed in
Feb 1778
Conway Cabal – General Conway’s letters convincing others to insist on GW being replaced, some support,
later forced to resign wen letters requested by Congress
France and Spain Join War
Reasons - Saratoga ended fears of American collapse, revenge for 7 years war, Franklin popular in France
(beaver hats, diplomatic missions 1776), sent some supplies and commanders from beginning
Louis XVI initially reluctant – French Catholicism, absolutist gov, French debt
6th Feb 1778 – Treaty of Amity and treaty of Alliance (effective from June)
Impact:
- French Strengths – reduced British naval presence in America (1778 = 41%, 1780 = 13%), defence at
home needed, Yorktown – de Grasse’s fleet defeated British navy to prevent reinforcements reaching
Cornwallis, Rochambeau convinced attack and Lafayette sent troops
- French Weaknesses – d’Estaing more focused on Caribbean possessions, failed to besiege Savannah,
Rochambeau landed in RI July 1780 but did little
April 1779 – Spain declare war as ally to France not America (Bourbon Family Pact)
1780 – Britain declare war on Netherlands who were aiding France and Spain
League of Armed Neutrality – Russia, Sweden, Denmark (1780), Prussia, Portugal, Austria (1781) – protected
neutral rights, prevented British blockade of Caribbean, recognised America as its own country
