Unit 2: Cognitive psychology
2.1: Content
Memory
- 2.1.1 The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974).
- 2.1.2 The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968).
- 2.1.3 Explanation of long-term memory – episodic and semantic
memory (Tulving, 1972).
- 2.1.4 Reconstructive memory (Bartlett, 1932) & schema theory.
- 2.1.5 Individual differences in.
- 2.1.6 Developmental psychology in memory
2.2 Methods
Experiments
- 2.2.1 Designing and conducting experiments, including field and
laboratory experiments.
- 2.2.2 Independent and dependent variables.
- 2.2.3 Experimental and null hypotheses.
- 2.2.4 Directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two tailed) tests
and hypotheses.
- 2.2.5 Experimental and research designs: repeated measures,
independent groups, and matched pairs.
- 2.2.6 Operationalisation of variables, extraneous variables and
confounding variables.
- 2.2.7 Counterbalancing, randomisation, and order effects.
- 2.2.8 Situational and participant variables.
- 2.2.9 Objectivity, reliability, and validity (internal, predictive and
ecological).
- 2.2.10 Experimenter effects, demand characteristics and control
issues.
- 2.2.11 Quantitative data analysis.
- 2.2.12 Decision making and interpretation of inferential statistics
- 2.2.13 Case study of brain-damaged patients, including Henry
Molaison (HM)
2.3 Studies
Classic study
- 2.3.1 Baddeley (1966b) Working memory model
One contemporary study
- 2.3.2 Schmolck et al. (2002)
2.4 Key questions
2.5 One practical research exercise
,Working memory model A01
Baddeley and hitch criticised Atkinson and Shiffrin way of describing short-term
memory as being too simplistic. They argued that working memory, short term
memory is actually organised into separate components.
Working memory deals with any information that you need to hold in your mind
for a short-term period of time. For example, when calculating multiplications or
learning new words or using a map.
By doing these actions repeatedly you start to remember them permanently and
then the information is stored in your long-term memory. However, while you are
still learning or working things out your working memory is involved.
Description of the overall theory
The role of the working memory is to temporally store and manipulate information
being used. Three components are involved in this:
The central executive – this supervises the system and overseas the two slave
systems
The visuospatial sketchpad – a slave system that is controlled by a central
executive. This deals with visual (sight) and spatial (location) based information
for example using a map to navigate
The phonological loop – also a slave system. This deals with phonological (language
– sound) information for example learning how to say a new word
The central executive:
- This was originally seen as a homunculus (little man) that supervised how
the two slave systems should work
- Seen as having limited capacity which means there is only a certain amount
of information that it can cope with
- However, modality free which means it can deal with any type of sensory
information for example sight, touch, smell, hear
- As this theory of memory developed over time the role of the central
executive became more detailed and was seen as in control of attention,
being able to decide which slave system to focus attention or how to divide
attention between the two as well as deciding when to switch attention
from one to another
,The phonological loop
- Slave system as it is under the control of the central executive.
- Deals with the temporary store of spoken and written verbal informal.
- Involves briefly storing verbal information and has limited capacity e.g.,
holding the word in the mind
- But this could be extended if the information was subvocalised or refreshed
using the artillery rehearsal system
- Evolved to allow us to learn a new language
- Known as the inner ear or inner voice
The phonological loop is made up of two parts: phonological & articulatory store
1. Phonological store – also known as the inner ear – linked to speech
perception – it holds information in speech form for 1 or 2 seconds
2. Articulator rehearsal system – also known as inner voice – linked to speech
production. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the
phonological store.
Subsequent research into the phonological loop has provided an understanding of
why it may have evolved
- Researching an Italian women VP with an acquired phonological
impairment, Baddeley found that she was unable to retain any vocabulary
learned form a different language suggesting that the phonological loop may
have evolved for language acquisition.
- Further research using children with specific language impairment
demonstrated that the phonological loop was necessary for language
acquisitions and that defects in this component of working memory resulted
in difficulty learning and comprehending novel language
Visuospatial sketch pad
- Slave system as under the control of the central executive
- Deals with the temporary store and manipulation changing of visual imagery
and spatial potion/ location information
- Can be either through observing images externally or retrieving visuospatial
information from long term memory (remembering your route to school,
thinking about turnings and what you see at each junction
- Also deals with visual and spatial information
- Visual information refers to what things look like
- Plays important role in helping us keep track in where we are in relation to
other objects as we move through our environment
- As we move around, our position in relation to objects is constantly
changing and it is important that we can update this information
Recent research has attempted to distinguish between visual and spatial
components of VSSP using tasks that test memory span.
- Spatial scan has been tested using the Corsi block tapping task where
participants are presented with a series of blocks on the screen that light up
in a sequence that they have to repeat
- Error frequency increases with the number in the sequence suggesting
limited capacity to spatial information
, Wmm A03:
A03: experimental evidence: A03: However, studies showed that
Baddeley and Hitch (1976) used dual tasks although we could store only a limited
experiments to prove their theory. They number of words sequences, we could store
found participants struggled to complete far longer sentences that are connected by
two visuospatial tasks at the same time meaning (up to 15 to 20 sentence units).
(tracking the location of a moving light and The phonological loop does not explain this.
tracking the edges of the letter F) showing Consequently, Baddeley added the episodic
both tasks involve the visuospatial buffer to the theory which could retrieve
sketchpad. However, they also revealed information from LTM which helped to give
that when participants had to complete one meaning to information in STM. Such an
visual and one phonological task, addition shows the original theory was
performance was good. This shows support inadequate and was not an adequate
for separate visual and verbal systems. explanation of memory. Therefor the finding
that there are separate visual and verbal
systems is not accurate.
A03: neurophysiological evidence A03However, case studies on KF and HM is
KF 1974 suffered STM impairment following weak evidence to support separate
a motorbike accident that damaged the visuospatial and phonological systems
partial lobe of his brain. KF has a digit span because they are on case studies and so
of one suggesting a gross impairment in his findings might be unique to the individual
phonological store but his visual memory with specific impairments and are not
was still intact. In contrast HM suffered representative of society. Therefor the
from a gross impairment in his spatial working memory is not generalizable to
memory with relatively unaffected STM for society.
verbal info. This supports the proposal that
working memory has two subsystems to
deal with verbal and spatial info relatively
independently
A03: neuroimaging evidence A03: neurophysiological evidence
Neuroimaging has offered some evidence for Williams syndrome is a rare condition
the localisation of the different where individuals show normal language
subcomponents of the working memory in ability but impaired visual and spatial
the brain ability. Individuals with this condition are
Paulesu et al demonstrated that different affected by the same phonological factors
regions of the brain were activated when such as word length and word similarity as
undertaking task that employed the the general population. But perform poorly
phonological store and articulatory system. on block tapping tests. This offers clinical
Using PET scans they found that the BROCA evidence for separate visuospatial and
area was activated during subvocal phonological subsystems.
rehearsal task (remembering word) and the
supramarginal gyrus was activated when
the phonological store was being used. This
research provides evidence for the
phonological loop and its separate
subcomponents. However, the exact
location of the central executive is hard to
find as it is largely diffused across the
cortex
