AQA A-Level Government & Politics
Paper 3: Political Ideas
Chapter 1: Liberalism
Broad associations with liberalism
• In the US and Western Europe, liberalism is usually defined as being at odds with conser-
vatism and ideologically close to socialism
• This explains why a self-proclaimed liberal Hillary Clinton belongs to the same party as so-
cialist Bernie Sanders
• However, the label can change in different contexts: the Australian Liberal Party is a
chosen by local conservatives over the opposition Labour Party
The origins of liberalism
• The ideology's roots lie in the 15th-16th Century Reformation, which was a movement led
by religious protestors such as Martin Luther, who argued that the growth of the printed
word & wider literacy meant that Christianity could become more individualistic, as indi-
viduals would be able to communicate w/ God through their own private prayers, rather
than through intermediaries like priests
• The Enlightenment extended these notions to political and secular spheres, with the intel-
lectual movement influencing events like the English Civil War, overthrowing Charles I
• Radical beliefs defined the Enlightenment: reason was put above faith, hitherto accepted
concepts were scrutinised, relentless debate was encouraged, the govt-individual relation-
ship was questioned and individuals were now seen as beings w/ free will who are best
placed to shape their own lives
• Ideas such as the divine right of kings (DROK) and superstition were replaced logical theses
such as mechanistic theory
Definition of mechanistic theory & egotistical individualism
MT = an anti-DROK argument strongly linked to John Locke; it explains that because man-
kind is rational, it is capable of deciding a state that reflects mankind's needs
EI = the classical liberal belief that human beings are rationally and naturally drawn to the
advancement of their own selfish interests as well as the pursuit of their own happiness
Overall liberal view of human nature
• Liberals challenge the medieval view of human nature (HUMNAT), which is strongly tied to
the doctrine of original sin - they reject the idea that the deep flaws within mankind mean
that praying for God's forgiveness is their man's only hope
• Drawing upon the optimistic spirit of Enlightenment, liberals believe that humans have an
unending capacity to push progress forward, a powerful ability to bring happiness to the
world and are guided by rational reason
• Followers of liberalism believe that ideas can be examined through debate or discussion,
humans can plan their future rather than just rely on an accepted 'fate' and thus can shape
their own destiny
• Assuming that rationality is a universal feature of humanity, liberals see human problems
,as mere challenges awaiting to be solved by determined individuals
• Their belief is egotistical individualism means that while HUMNAT for them is self-serving,
self-seeking and favouring independence, virtuous rationality prevents destructive selfish-
ness, reason makes people sensitive to others' perspectives and discussion tends to results
in the achievement of a consensus
• Therefore, HUMNAT supposedly leads to a natural condition of peace, harmony and mu-
tual understanding
(KT) John Locke's ideas on the human state
>> The Lockean conception of the state plays a key role in classical liberal thinking
>> Contrasting beliefs like the Divine Right of Kings And Defying assertions such as that the
state is God's creation he argued that mankind's 'true' state would have its consent and
serve their interests
>> Unlike Thomas Hobbes on pleasant view of natural society (SOC), Locke saw the state of
nature as a positive equilibrium: it was in his eyes guided by natural laws, liberties and rights
>> The alternative 'state of law' was to only improve this even further, helping resolve inter-
personal disputes protecting rights and ensuring that natural liberties are enjoyed
>> Ideally, the social contract theory set out a world where the state improves the situation
exchange for voluntary consent from citizens
>> The state (STT) would also be limited - the contractual nature of it means that govern-
ment would have to receive continuous consent would have to be a dispersal of power and
its actions would be restricted by the need to represent the people
Overall liberal view of society
>> There is a stark contrast with conservative pessimism here
>> In the 1651 work Leviathan Hobbes argue that life before the state was 'nasty brutish and
short' because only the state can address the selfish nature of humans
>> On the other hand, 'natural' write laws and SOC means that a civilized world can exist
without the state according to liberals
>> Regardless of whether as societies natural or manufactured it should above all facilitate
individualism
>> Thinkers like John Stuart Mill because rational individuals pursue their own self-interest
they wish to be self-reliant in their pursuit
>> This inevitably leads to the craving of freedom particularly, as expressed in Mill's On
Liberty (1859), the freedom to be independently self-fulfilled
>> The right to property is paramount unsurprisingly - Locke said that 'that with which man
has mixed his labour' is a tangible expression of the individual whereas Mill said that prop-
erty is a 'prism' through which individuals develop their potential
Overall liberal view of the economy
>> Liberalism is devoted to private property supports enterprise and advocates for the
private ownership
>> The liberal aspect of capitalism stems from its optimism about being socially beneficial
the Lockean natural right of private property being prioritized and its individualist nature
>> Adam Smith liberal author of 'The 1776 Wealth of Nations' first explained concepts of lib-
eral capitalism which would be developed into a new vision of Economics - the idea that free
,markets would be guided by an 'invisible hand', ensure that wealth will 'trickle down' and
promote the 'wealth of nations'
>> However, critics have pointed out that this promotes a naive view about the efficacy of
market forces
>> Nevertheless, Smith's ideas were still exciting nuanced and important
>> He said that capitalism can be improved by educating consumers redirecting the rich's
vanity towards socially beneficial activities and insuring that specialisation does not destroy
meaning
>> Since the late 1600s as a result, economic liberalism (or capitalism) has spread
Overall liberal view of the state
The state of nature is a philosophical device used by both Hobbes and Locke to justify the
types of political states that the two proposed as it described life before laws government
and formal rules. Liberals preferred the state to this arrangement because statelessness,
while tolerable, would mean that there would be no one to arbitrate competing claims of
egocentric individuals particularly as it relates to unresolved clashes about property.
Objectives of a liberal state overlooked by the traditional state
The liberal STT had to have a wider grande purpose - this was applied when England wrote
up its 1689 Bill of Rights, the US ratified its Constitution in 1787 and the first French Republic
agreed on its rules in 1789
It was a clear rejection of the traditional state where monarchs wielded 'divine power' exer-
cised it randomly and let a few individuals impose their absolutist arbitrary rule
Locke and others insisted that "government should always be the servant" of the people as-
serting that the state is only legitimate if the people have volunteered to be under its juris-
diction
The principle of 'government by consent' is linked to enlightenment ideas like Jean-Jacques
Rousseau's 'govt by contract' which is a 'deal' between the government and the governed
whereby individuals 'contract in' to the formal state by accepting the latter's authority and
restrictions in exchange for something promised in return
Objectives of a liberal state enforcing rights protections
The only national liberal reason to submit to the state would be if it allowed natural rights to
be respected promoted and safety as well as easily exercised
Mill built on Voltaire's thoughts on individualism by developing the harm principle which
outlined that there should be tolerant towards any actions or speech as long as it did not
harm the freedom of others
Early liberals were aware that individuals did congregate in religious communities for ex-
ample and they believed that tolerance to be extended to them to with Locke advocating for
post-1668 Catholic rights in the wake of English Protestant Supremacy after the Glorious Re-
volution
Given the liberal admiration of meritocracy it is no surprise that they thought that political
power should be exercised by those seen as worthy of it rather than simply descendants of
aristocratic rulers
Liberals believe in foundational equality (the idea that people are all born equal, have equal
natural rights and deserve legal equality) as well as the equality of opportunity to develop
one's potential
, However, unlike socialists they do not extend this to equality of outcome
'Equality of opportunity' leads to the assumption that individuals will be treated fairly re-
gardless of their identity - in short a state under liberalism should embody justice
Liberal methods and structures guaranteeing the achievement of their objectives
Constitutional government can be characterised as limited because in stark contrast with
monarchical order, liberal constitutions force the government to follow prearranged rules
act according to procedures rather than randomly and ensure that natural rights of citizens
are not eroded. Liberals advocate for the dispersal of power and their belief in fragmented
government reflect their belief in rationality. In their review if people are generally reason-
able it is logical that the maximum number of individuals are empowered to exercise the
state's functions. Lord Acton also once outlined that "absolute power tends to corrupt abso-
lutely". Formal equality where all individuals have the same legal political rights is important
for liberals too. It is related to the idea of the rule of law the right to criticize the govern-
ment freedom of speech and the ability to invoke the Bill of Rights in the courts. Much of
this was exemplified in the 1788 US Constitution, which had a formal separation of powers
between different branches and chambers, a Bill of Rights immune to short-term decisions
of governments and a Supreme Court which would uphold rights in decisions that could
even override those of elected governments.
Extent to which modern liberals have simply built on classical liberal ideas
In some ways modern liberals have built on the work of their predecessors. Betty Friedan
advocated for the aiding of women especially single ones due to them facing patriarchal dis-
crimination, w/ programs like state benefits. This could be seen as an extension of Mary
Wollstonecraft's thinking on her sex as as she argued that women are equally rational de-
serve equal education and should be granted legal equality. John Stuart Mill and TH Green
argued that the state should be proactive in helping individuals maximize their innate tal-
ents which is also seen in modern liberalism. However the former as well as John Locke out-
lined the importance of limited government whereas liberals like John Rawls now push for a
large government funded by progressive taxation.
Definitions of laissez-faire capitalism, negative liberty + minimal state
L-F C = an economic system which allows private enterprise to operate with little or no state
interference
NEGALIB = the classical liberal freedom involving individuals being left alone to pursue their
destiny
MNM STT = a state that reflects the concept of negative Liberty by minimising state activit-
ies, confining its reach to areas such as defence and protecting of private property
Early liberalism's radicalism and its stance on freedom
>> Lockean arguments for estate driven by representatives as well as a government by con-
sent had revolutionary potential with monarchies
>> John Locke's insistence on natural rights the idea that humans are rational and that indi-
viduals should get maximum freedom became the core of classical liberalism
>> Mary Wollstonecraft critiqued the unreasonable treatment of women and Hanoverian
Society arguing that it kept them "in a state of listless inactivity and stupid acquiescence"
