Key scholars:
o Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
o John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
o Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900)
o G.E. Moore (1873-1958)
o Karl Popper (1902-1994)
o Richard Brandt (1910-1997)
o R.M. Hare (1919-2002)
o Peter Singer (1946-)
Deontological (whether the act is ethically justifiable)
Teleological / Consequential (whether the consequences of that act are ethically justifiable).
o Utilitarianism is teleological / consequential.
Egoism: an ethical theory that treats self-interest as the foundation of morality.
o This is teleological.
Hedonism: the idea that “good” is defined in terms of pleasure and happiness – this makes
utilitarianism a hedonistic theory.
o Both Plato and Aristotle agreed that “good” equated with the greatest happiness,
while the Epicureans stresses “pleasure” as the main aim of life.
o The ultimate end of human desires and actions, according to Aristotle, is happiness
and though pleasure sometimes accompanies this, it is not the chief aim of life.
o Pleasure is different from happiness, as happiness results from the use of reason and
cultivating the virtues. It is only if we take pleasure in good activities that pleasure
itself is good.
o This is teleological.
Rule Utilitarianism: a form of utilitarianism that says an action is right as it conforms to a
rule that leads to the greatest good.
Act Utilitarianism: a utilitarian theory of ethics that states that a person's act is morally right
if and only if it produces the best possible results in that specific situation.
Problems with Utilitarianism:
1. Problem of consequences.
2. Problem of special responsibilities.
3. Problem of justice.
Bentham Mill
Act Utilitarianism. Rule Utilitarianism.
“The greatest good [pleasure] for the greatest “The greatest happiness for the greatest number".
number.” Some pleasures are greater than others (spiritual vs
Focused on the individual alone and the physical).
consequences. Harm principle.
Quantitative – hedonic calculus. We should protect the common good – universalistic.
Qualitative – higher / lower pleasure.
, Dillon Precious Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham:
“To act to produce the greatest amount of happiness (good) for the greatest amount of
people.”
o Can also interpret it as “the least amount of suffering.”
o All about quantity.
According to Bentham, the most moral acts are those that maximise pleasure and minimise
pain. This has sometimes been called the “Utilitarian Calculus.”
The Hedonic Calculus:
o 1. The intensity of the pleasure (how deep).
o 2. The duration of the pleasure caused (how long).
o 3. The certainty of the pleasure (how certain or uncertain).
o 4. The remoteness (or Propinquity) of the pleasure (how near or far).
o 5. The chance of a succession of pleasures (how continuous).
o 6. The purity of the pleasure (how secure).
o 7. The extent of the pleasure (how universal).
Bentham said: “An act is right if it delivers more pleasure than pain and wrong if it brings
about more pain than pleasure.”
By adding up the amounts of pleasure and pain for each possible act we should be able to
choose the good thing to do.
Happiness = pleasure – pain.
By utility is meant that the property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit,
advantage, pleasure, good or happiness.
So, utility means the ability of something to produce happiness, not to its usefulness.
In decision making, a utilitarian need to consider the long- and short-term effects of their
actions.
There are two key terms – intrinsic and instrumental value.
o Intrinsic – that they are pleasurable in themselves.
o Instrumental – qualities that lead to pleasure.
Bentham’s utility is a universal hedonism – the highest good is the greatest happiness for
the greatest number.
o The means justifies the end.
o Bentham’s view is described as Act Utilitarianism.
o Bentham argued that we should be guided by the principle of utility and not by
rules.
Problems with Bentham:
There are several problems associated with Bentham and his form of Act Utilitarianism. One
was identified by his student, John Stuart Mill.
He said that Bentham’s theory can condone actions which, even though increasing the total
amount of pleasure, are still held to be morally inexcusable.
o E.g., Slavery – if the majority receives happiness because a small minority are slaves,
it will support slavery.
o Suppose a group of sadistic guards are torturing a prisoner. If the guards’ pleasure
outweighs the prisoner’s pain, then, according to the Hedonistic Calculus, their
action is justified. Indeed, we soon see that the calculus may be used to support any
number of morally repugnant acts.
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