Challenge and transformatonn ritain, c1851–1964
Part onen Victorian and Edwardian ritain, c1851–1914
1.1 Reform and challenge, c1851–c1886
1.1.1 The politcal systemn parliament and the workings of mid-19th century democracy)
ruling elites) prime ministers) partes and party realignment to 1867
The ritsh System of Government
House of Commons: 650 constiuencies of similar populaton reiurning 1 MP, 1 si pasi ihe posi,
general electon held every 5 years and pariy wiih overall majoriiy wins
House of Lords: Hisiorically arisiocrais, herediiary peers and Lord’s spiriiual, can make laws wiih
House of Commons and checks legislaton of House of Commons, can veio up io 12 monihs. 775
members (no fied membership), life peers increased in numbers since mid 1900s.
Monarchy: Head of siaie. Prerogatve io dissolve parliameni, sack PM and declare war alihough ihey
very usually don’i.
PM and Cabinei: Appoinied by Monarch from pariy wiih absoluie monarchy, PM also an MP, around
20 minisiers in cabinei, 100 minisiers in governmeni
Parliameni and ihe workings of mid-19 ih ceniury democracy
Two iypes of constiuency in 1850:
County seats – ihose entiled io voie were 40 shilling freeholders, £10 copyholders, £50
leaseholders wiih lease of ai leasi 20 years, £10 leaseholders wiih lease of ai leasi 60 years and £50
ienanis, if occupiers
orough seats – ihose entiled io voie were owners or occupiers of properiy worih £10 a year in
reni. This qualifcaton was clearly iniended io ensure middle class represeniaton
Meihod of votng open – secrei ballois weren’i iniroduced. Voiers regisiered by having iheir names
placed on elecioral roll and paying fee of a shilling (approiimaiely ½ a working day wage). Maiimum
lengih of Parliameni was 7 years
1832 Reform Act
% of aduli males entiled io voie in England and Wales increased from 11% in 1831 io 18% in 1833
More electons because beiween 1806 and 1832, % aciually coniesied never rose above 38% and
was normally below 30%
Firsi electon aaer Aci had contests in 74% of seats and beiween 1832 and 1865; ihe average % of
contested electons was 59%
1
,Corn Law Split 1846
Conservatves won substantal majority in 1841 due io fnancial crisis of ihe tme – Peel ihen able io
push ihrough free trade policies ihai upset his backbench ‘ulira-Tories’.
Proiectonisi policy had led io Corn Laws
Grain is cheaper due io high iaies – ihis benefits farmers
Prices ihen artficially high – leaves poor worse of (grain eipensive)
Poiaio famine in Ireland (1845), Irish unable to aford grain
Peel wanis io repeal Corn Laws and make bread afordable
Corn Law passed in 1846 bui ii splits Conservatves
Split very biter on personal level wiih atacks on Peel by proiectonisi Conservatves like Lord
George Bentnck and Disraeli
Impacts on Peelites Impacts on Conservatves
No leader as Peel resigns Peel ofended many Conservatve MPs
Graham and Aberdeen (perceived leaders) Protectonism dead – Conservatves unwilling io
accepi ihis faci
Unclear philosophy Disraeli not an alternatve io Peel
Biterness beiween former groups of There is no aliernatve io Disraeli eiiher
Conservatve Pariy
Disraeli perceived as a ‘traitor’ Divided over religious ioleraton
Derby and Disraeli emerge as leaders bui ihere is
suspicion
Derby had tried to re-unite pariy bui had no
success, many feel rise of Disraeli meani ihai
Peeliies like Gladsione didn’i re-join pariy due io
Disraeli’s ant-Peel speeches even aaer
Conservatves ofcially abandoned proiecton in
1851
2
,How were Whigs transformed into Liberals over the period 1846-68?
Repeal of the Popularity of Liberals bring Lord Industrial
Corn Laws Gladstone groups together Palmerston’s Revoluton
popularity
Divided Supported free By unifying, ihey His aggressive More wealih led
Conservatves trade, which could contain views on foreign io a growth of
groups did, Radicals policy the Middle Class
uniied ihem
rought Peelites A Peeliie, very Middle class
over, made ihem strong and would voie for a
uniied and ihey successful more liberal
became liberal in politcian party
iheir beliefs
His politcs The 1832 Reform
brought Aci increased
supporters and electorate and
groups together Whigs moved lea
io gain more
voies
3
, Ruling Eliies
Repeal of Corn Laws led io 5 main groups in Parliament:
Protectoni Peelites Whigs Radicals Irish
st MPs
Bentnnck, Peel, Aberdeen and Russell and Cobden and Bright
Disraeli and Gladstone Palmerston
Stanley
Former Conservatves Eiistng competng MPs wiih strong reforming
who split following pariy wiih views and were more eiireme
Repeal of Corn Laws Conservatves, ihey ihan Whigs, ihey
were more coniained/negaied radicalism in
reforming but stll Liberal banner
not progressive
100 Peeliie MPs in 1847 Middle-class reformers and had
falling to about 40 in set up Ant-Corn League in 1838
1852
Level of infuence Aaer Corn Laws repealed in
beyond their numbers 1846, Richard Cobden and John
because of unceriain and right remained actve in
divided make-up of ihe politcs and became associaied
House of Commons wiih ihe ‘Liberals’
Peeliies comprised ‘the Cobden supporied Gladsione’s
brains and experience’ of free irade budgeis in 1850s and
whai had been 1860s and negotaied Cobden-
Conservatves – since Chevalier treaty wiih France in
ihey efectvely held 1860
balance in Commons,
iheir positon was
enhanced
Peeliies numbered aboui Brighi eventually became a
1/3rd of old minister in Gladsione’s second
Conservatves following minisiry (1880-85)
ihe 1847 general electon
Main politcal positons From 1841-65 (Cobden’s deaih)
were closer to the ihey allied wiih Cobden as a
Protectonist siraiegisi and Brighi as a
Conservatves ihan io ihe campaigner and ihey became
Whigs and Radicals in voice of responsible working
parliameni, eicepi on ihe class opinion
issue of Free Trade
Aaer Peel’s deaih in Radicals never a facton in iheir
1850, Peeliies were led own righi, stll less a politcal
by Sir James Graham and pariy, bui ihey naiurally
Aberdeen graviiaied io ihe ‘Liberals’
raiher ihan ihe Tories
4
,Formaton of ihe Liberal Pariy
1859 – Willis’ Rooms meetng, Liberals ofcially formed from Peeliies, Whigs, Radicals and
Independeni Irish Pariy MPs.
United by desire for free trade – increased exports and brought prosperity to country. Liberals
became known as party of prosperity
Agreed io combine to bring down Conservatve Government of ihe Earl of Derby
United by Italian unificaton (wanied Iialian provinces uniied inio one kingdom)
Several leading Peelites (including Gladsione, Herberi, Cardwell and Newcasile (noiably noi Graham
(one of ihe driving forces behind ihe coaliton)) accepted cabinet posts
Some Peeliies became independents or returned to Conservatves
Liberals’ in ihe 1850s
Saw rise in popularity
Lost ‘Whiggish’ image
Gained populariiy for being good at handling finance and administraton
Railways benefited from bumbling economy
Became pariy of competence and integrity
Became progressive party, wiih popular ideas which ihey markeied io elecioraie
Popular foreign policy and iis broadly laissez-faire policies were in iune wiih whai many wanied
Gained good electoral base in boroughs and growth of towns reduced ihe Conservatve rural voie
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,Oiher evenis in ihe 1850s
Peelite/Whig coaliton in 1852-55 under Prime Minisier Aberdeen (Peeliie)
Palmersion (Whig) was Home Secretary despiie Foreign Secreiary eiperience
Foreign Policy had been popular – natonalistc and aggressive
Russell was Foreign Secretary
Governmeni crumbled in 1855 due to management over Crimean War and Aberdeen was
succeeded by Palmersion
Party further lost cohesion when some members including Gladsione, Graham and Herberi
accepied cabinei posis in Palmersion’s new governmeni (ihey resigned a few weeks laier)
No overall leader and appeared io be a band of independenis raiher ihan a politcal facton
Aaer 1857 electons iheir number of MPs decreased io around 26 (could’ve been less ai ii was
difcult to identfy who was and wasn’t a Peelite)
New governmeni was strong on foreign policy (led ihrough Crimean War)
Was stll fractous and disseni in 1858 allowed ihe Tories io win ihe 1858 electon
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,Politcs siood for broad principles raiher ihan specifc policies
elief of Conservatves
Respected and valued power and positon of monarch io make any decisions ihey wanied
Respected and valued ritsh consttuton and workings of iraditonal politcal sysiem - 1832 reform
Act had gone too far
Didn’t like 1832 reform bui were prepared to accept it
Respected House of Lords as much as House of Commons
Associaied democracy wiih mob rule in USA
Landowning aristocracy were rulers of couniry and brought stability
Landowners over manufacturing or commercial inieresi
Landowners were mosily inherited from parents
Esiablished CofE was central to social stability described as ‘Conservatves ai prayer’
Monarch was Earthly Head of Church
Senior ishops were in House of Lords
ut
Views weren’t as rigid due io young Queen ai ihe ihrone
1832 Reform Aci meani greater authority io House of Commons
Britsh landed classes weren’t totally opposed io some politcal role for wealihy merchani middle
class (Peel)
Free irade measures meani favouring middle class
Privileges of CofE were maintained bui ihere was religious toleraton for oiher religions, bui
Caiholics were stll seen wiih suspicion.
7
, elief of Liberals
Whig-Liberal beliefs weren’t as clear as Conservatve ones – some discernable irends.
Greater acceptance of reform ihan ihe Conservatves (1832)
Reform necessary io preserve essentals of politcal sysiem
Greater suspicion of power of Monarchs – high regard for ‘libertes’ of ihe ordinary Englishman
ritsh politcal system superior io diciaiorships of contnenial Europe and democratc ‘eicesses’ of
USA
Free speech and free press upheld
Middle class allowed into heart of politcal framework - naiural politcal allies of liberals and given
voie in 1832
Resulied in economic policies more inclined to free trade by removing iarif barriers and a general
suspicion of unnecessary eipense in governmeni
Less emphasis on privileges’ of the CofE and more atenton io religious liberiy
Liberals showed greater sympathy towards nonconformist denominatons and sometmes Caiholics
Wanied io use properted wealth of Church for ihe wider good (educaton)
Less emphasis on role of government - cheap governmeni and low iaiaton
By 1846 organisaton of partes was developing and words ‘Conservatve’ and ‘Liberal’ were being
used in politcal circles
8
,Why were the Liberals’ popular?
Industrial revoluton – politcs furihered men
Religious revival
Campaigning organisatons around religious books
Gladsione removed financial barrier to press – local paper grew in number
No alternatve for middle class and skilled labourers – indusirials unrepresenied untl 1884
Assertve businessmen politcally unsure
Suspicion ihai Whigs were wiih radicals io coniain ihem raiher ihan advance
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, Gladsione’s influence
Toured country – middle class supporied his liberal ideas, encouraged groups io be liberal – natonal
figure
Mainly spoke in industrial places like Newcasile, Darlingion, Wreiham and Lancashire
Preferred audience was honest, temperate, hard-working artsans
Had an increasing afnity with working class
Aware of popular press influence – brought paper prices down io make newspapers cheaper –
made middle class politcally aware and supportve of liberal message which goi oui
Middle class more educated – 1832 electon meani more voiers and appeal io middle class became
imporiani
Middle class grows because of industrialisaton due io Gladsione’s economic policies and ihe Whigs
become more liberal
Encompassed many liberal strands – made increasingly liberal siaiemenis in ofering hope io ihose
demanding a widened franchise
1864 – Famously spoke aboui bringing more men ‘within the pale of the constitution’
High Anglican bui had moral correctness
Popular with non-conformists
Conservatve even in reactonary tmes – appealed io Whigs and spoke language of radicals
Gladstone’s hatred of Disraeli, Peeliies don’i reiurn io Conservatves and Peeliies siay and
encourage Whigs io be more Liberal – ihey agree io work wiih Whigs ai Willis’ Room Meetng
udgets were seen as well thought out and benefciary io good of couniry whilsi having an
increasing sympathy for disenfranchised honest working man
Placed great emphasis on financial reform wiih aim maiimising Briiain’s wealih bui by balancing
ihe books
Removal of tarifs improved economy and made people happy and ihey supporied him and Liberals
as he was seen as leading economic boom
Cut 300 dutes in 1860 budget – tme as Chancellor (1859-66) was seen as ihe mosi successful of his
politcal career
Able io finalise the work he siaried as chancellor in 1853
Given freedom io form his policies once ihe Liberals were formed
udgets gained him personal politcal advantage, widened his suppori base and sei him on his way
io becoming fuiure PM
Wasn’t too bothered by ritsh Empire and resisied foreign enianglemenis
Opposed involvement in Sudan (deaih of General Gordon in 1885) – spoke strongly in
favour of interventon in Otoman Empire (none iook place) in 1877-8 which was broughi
aboui by his ferveni Christan belief
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