Psychological Science, 6th International Student Edition
These are all lecture notes for the course: Introduction to Psychology. I listened to each of the lectures and typed them all out, including illustrations for clarification. It really contains everything you need to know before the exam!
*With my notes, I did not get lower than 7 for all courses ...
TEST BANK FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 6th Edition By Michael S. Gazzaniga | COMPLETE All Chapters (2024-2025)
TEST BANK FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 6 th Edition By Michael S. Gazzaniga | COMPLETE GUIDE VERIFIED A+ (2024-2025)
TEST BANK FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 6 th Edition By Michael S. Gazzaniga | COMPLETE GUIDE VERIFIED A+ (2024-2025)
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Psychologie
Inleiding in de Psychologie (P_BINLPSY)
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Inleiding psychologie hoorcollege 1 06-09-2022
• The genetic basis
- Each cell has a nucleus (celkern) which contains all the DNA
- In the human nucleus are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
- Chromosomes are made up of coiled strands of DNA in a double helix
shape → connected through A, T, C, G (nucleotide)
- Genes → meaningful sections of the DNA molecule → contain the code
for one protein, which are made by ribosomes
- Gene expression → whether a gene is turned ‘on’ or ‘of’;
when the gene from the DNA is transcribed to RNA to make a protein
(than the gene will be turned on)
- In each cell, some genes are expressed at any point of time and others
are not → this is controlled by the biochemical environment in the cell
(influenced by the environment outside the cell, experience,
development etc.)
- Ga je elke dag naar de gym dan zal er spraken zijn van genenexpressie in
je spiercellen, doe je dat niet, dan niet.
- Genotype → an organisms specific set of genes
(In principle this set of genes is the same for every cell)
- Phenotype → visible traits of an organism → determined by genotype x
environment (experience, past and present)
- Each gene is paired with another gene → located at corresponding
positions on pairs of chromosomes
- Allele: specific variant of gene
→ dominant or recessive
- Locus: place where allele is attached to the
chromosome
- A specific trait or behavior is determined by the
interaction between the environment (past and
present) and one or multiple gene pairs
- → for example: development of schizophrenia → not just the function of
the environment and one specific gene, but the function of environment
in combination of multiple genes (= polygenetic inheritance)
- Genome → name for an organisms complete set of genes → is shaped
by evolution over the years = Darwin’s Evolution Theory
• Evolution by natural selection
- Charles Darwin hypothesized that all modern organisms:
• Are descended from a small set of shared ancestors
• Have merged over time through the process of evolution
, - The key mechanism of evolution is natural selection (= organisms who
are better adapted to their environment, are more likely to survive and
have offspring)
→ Three conditions:
• There’s variation among individuals of a population
• Individuals with a certain trait survive an reproduce at higher rates
than others
• The trait associated with this advantage is passed from
parents to offspring
- Specific traits will be better represented in the next generation
- The survival of genes is more important than the survival of individuals
- The evidence for modern evolutionary comes from many sources:
• The fossil record (Darwin predicted that the earth was way older and
this could be confirmed by old fossils from flora and fauna)
• The resemblance between genomes of different organisms
Apes resemble human physically and through genes (because it’s our
closest relevant)
→ Telomere at end of chromosome
→ Centromere in middle of chromosome
- Pseudogene (= same like normal gene, but can’t express the hereditary
characteristics) 2
→ Distribution of species around the world (difference: continental
islands vs oceanic islands)
Vraag: Hoe kan het dat Hawaii (omringd door water) insecten had?
Antwoord: Ze kwamen van een ander land/ continent. Reptielen etc.
konden zichzelf niet zo verplaatsen.
- Despite overwhelming evidence, many people remain skeptical about the
theory of evolution
- It does not follow that evolution:
• Somehow improves organisms, it only makes new generations
organisms better adapted
• Can only lead to rigid behavioral patterns
• Genes and environments
- Nature (genes) vs. nurture (environment) → discussion between these
two is irrelevant
→ Instead, there is a continuous interaction between genes and
environment
- Who we are, is determined by how our genes are expressed in distinct
environments
,Inleiding psychologie hoorcollege 2 07-09-2022
• Nervous system responsible for everything we think, feel or do
- Divided in:
- Central nervous system → brain + spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system → all the other nerve cells
Includes:
• Somatic NS (voluntary behavior → reaching for object)
• Autonomic NS (less voluntary behavior → monitors the inner parts
of the body)
Sympathetic, prepares body for action
Parasympathetic, returns body to resting state
- Endocrine system, the hormone system body → primarily controlled by
hypothalamus
• Nervous system made up of two basis kinds of cells
- Glia cells → primarily supportive role
- Neurons → receive/transmit info to other cells through electric pulses
and communicate with other nerve cells through chemical signals
• Neuron
- There are different types neurons:
→ Sensory receptors, receive stimuli from environment
→ Sensory neurons, detects and carries info towards the CNS
→ Interneurons, neurons in between
→ Motor neurons, directs muscles to contract or relax
- Sensory and motor neurons work together to control movement
- Messages are received by the dendrites → processed in the cell
body → transmitted along the axon → and send to other neurons
via chemical substances released from the terminal buttons across
the synapse
, • Neurons interact via:
- Synapse → place where chemical communication occurs between
neurons
- Neurons have semi-permeable membrane, so that ions can move in and
out the cells
- Located on the membrane are ion channels
- By controlling the movement of ions, the membrane plays an important
role of in communication between neurons → regulates the
concentration of electrically charged molecules that are the basis of
neuron’s electrical activity
- Action potential (neural firing) → electrical signal that passes along the
axon = propagation
- Resting membrane potential = when neuron not active → electrical
charge inside neuron more negative then outside → (-70 mV)
• Two types of ions contribute to neurons resting membrane
• Sodium ions (NA+) en potassium ions (K+)
• Neuron at rest is polarized (-70 mw)
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