Compelte and methodic collection of notes for the Biology grade 12 U. Notes are in dyslexa friendly font, rich of immages and clarifications about more complex passages. Perfect study guide to prepare the exams if honor marks are needed for university requirements.
UNIT 3 : MOLECULAR GENETIC 1
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UNIT 4 : HOMEOSTASIS 1
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,UNIT 1
MOLECULES OF LIFE
Chemistry in living systems
isotope radioisotope molecule organic molecule biochemistry intramolecular
intermolecular hydrogen bond hydrophobic hydrophilic ion functional group
- Every living organism is composed by elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfury.
- Inter and Inter and intra molevular forces influence how atom relate to each other.
o Intra molecoular forces are bonds where electrons are shared in order
to reach stability and forming chemical bonds
o Intermolecular forces occur between different molecules and are way
weaker because are determined by the electronegativity of the
molecules.
§ Hydrogen bonds are bonds between H and O of different water
molecules caused by the opposite electronegativity of the 2
atoms
§ Hydrophobic interaction is an interaction that occurs between
non polar molecule because the try to all stay away from water an
minimize the surface contact
- Even if the basic structure of almost any organic molecule is a ring of C
surrounded by O the functional groups allow the molecules to have different
properties. These include hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amino, sulfhydryl, and
phosphate groups. *
- The chemical formula of a molecule in not able to provide enough
information in order to identify univocally a molecule, this happens since both
the disposition and the 3d structure of the molecule influence the behaviour.
o Structural formula shows how atom are disposed in order to create the
molecule
o 3D structure is able to display how atoms and links are disposed
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,• Organisms are composed primarily of the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfury.
• Intramolecular interactions occur between atoms within a molecule, forming
chemical bonds.
• e polarity of a molecule in fluences the intermolecular interactions that occur
between molecules. Two important types of intermolecular interactions are
hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions.
• e functional group or groups on a molecule determine the properties of the
molecule. Important functional groups in biological molecules include
hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amino, sulfydryl, and phosphate groups.
• e structures of molecules can be represented using a variety of formats. Structural
formulas are two-dimensional representations that indicate how the atoms are
bonded together. Space-filling models are a common way to represent the
three-dimensional structures of molecules.
- Carbohydrates are molecule used for short term energy storage and support
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, o They are always composed by carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
o Monomers of carbohydrates are called monosaccharides, the chains are said
polisaccaride.
o Some monosaccharides have the same chemical formula but different shape
Isomer.
o Two monosaccharides can join to form a disaccharide, covalent bond
between is called a glycosidic linkage.
o According to their shape polisaccarides have different funcitons and names
§ Starch branches for breakdown, energy storage
§ Glycogen, highly branched, stores energy In the liver
§ Cellulose, composed by a and b glucose, gives structure.
- Lipids are the long term energy storage of the body
o They are hydrophobic because non polar and rich of energy reach C=H bond
o Triglyceride are the animal and plants fat/oli storage.
§ They are composed by a glyceride and 3 fatty acid
§ Eser linkage between the fatty acids and the glyceralyle
• If unsaturated there are C=C doubble bond in the tails
• In there’s no bond they are unsaturated (soild)
o Phospholipids are the essential unit of the bilayer membrane
§ They have and hydrophobic (tails) and an hydrophilic (head) section
§ They are in order composed by chorine, phosphate glycerol and c
fatty acids
§ they are able to create a bialayer where the heads are on the outside
and the tails on the inside.
o Steroids are lipids composed by 4 carbon rings
- Proteins are resposable for structural support, catalyse chemical reaton, motion,
cellular process regoulation and defence.
o The functional unit of proteins is called maioacid
§ There are 20 essential aminoacid that have to be ighter ptoduced of
eaten in order to produce any kind ok protein
§ Aminoacid have all the same exact structure except for the R group that
define their properties.
o Protein are orgainzed in a 4 level structure that allow the mot be so poliedric
§ Linear sequence of amioacids
§ Polypeptide folding in a coli shape
§ Folding in a 3D structure
§ Multi polypeptide clumped together
- Nucleid Acids are the base structure of DNA and RNA they are made out of repeted
nucleotides
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, o Each nucleotide is composed by a phosphate group, a 5 carbon base and a
nitrogen base that differenciate the different nucleotidas
• Carbohydrates can act as short-term energy-storage and structural biological
molecules. y includes polysaccharides, and disaccharides and
monosaccharides (sugars). Polysaccharides are macromolecules composed of
monosaccharide monomers.
• Lipids are longer-term energy storage and structural biological molecules that
contain a higher proportion of non-polar C–C and C–H bonds than
carbohydrates. Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes are different
types of lipids.
• Proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acid monomers. Proteins have
primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures, which are
essential for their function. Proteins enable chemical reactions in living
systems, and also perform a wide variety of structural and regulatory roles.
• Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of nucleotide monomers. DNA and
RNA are both nucleic acids. DNA stores the hereditary information of a cell.
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