Extremely high-detailed and comprehensive A* ethics notes including not only the content/arguments but also a whole range of relevant scholars, responses and pros and cons of the different arguments. Everything you would need for this topic on any question at A* level!
Bentham believed that Utility was the most important idea in normative ethics and by utility he
means “the tendency an action appears to increase or diminish the happiness of the party whose
interest is in question.” In other words, Bentham believes that happiness is the deciding factor when
making a moral decision - whatever option creates the most happiness is the right thing to do. This
idea is teleological (focusing on outcomes), relativist (meaning that the morality of an action is
situational and can change), and hedonistic as it focuses on good actions creating pleasure and bad
actions causing pain. Utility aims for “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
o Utilitarianism should make us happy which is the aim in life.
Nozick questions wether we do actually desire happiness. He uses a thought experiment
about an experience machine where you are plugged in to a device that stimulates your
brain to feel great happiness. He argues that authenticity trumps pleasure and most people
would choose not to be plugged in. G.E Moore also advocates that there are more ideals
than simply pleasure and happiness, such as beauty and knowledge.
Utilitarianism is too demanding. It holds that we ought always to do whatever it is that
maximises utility. But if right, for example, watching television is morally wrong as you could
be helping out at a homeless shelter or volunteering with a charity. Utility is too great a
burden to be used all the time.
Hedonic Calculus
Bentham’s hedonic calculus, also called the felicific calculus, is an algorithm used to evaluate the
resultant happiness of an action. It uses seven factors: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity -
how soon the pleasure will occur, extent - the number of people it affects, fecundity and purity – the
subsequent consequences that will stem from your original action, to calculate the happiness (or
pain) an action causes for an individual, in both the short-term and the long-term. The calculus then
does the same for every single individual who could be affected by the action, resulting in an overall
happiness increase or decrease.
o The majority will always benefit when using this theory, which is a positive. Mill points
out that it will also make you less selfish and more impartial.
Utilitarianism is too selfless a theory. The calculus would conclude that you should sell your
possessions and spread the wealth among the poor.
Such a collectivist theory could be criticized as it ignores the rights and needs of those not in
the majority. Rawls says, “You judge a society on the way it looks after its minority not its
majority.”
Bowie demonstrates the flaws of Bentham’s theory with a scenario of a group of sadistic
guards torturing a wrongly imprisoned man. Schadenfreude in general reflects the problems
with a hedonistic theory.
Mcintyre argued that Utilitarianism was impractical and that utility could not be calculated
as “different pleasures and happiness are to a large degree incomparable.”
Mill felt that Bentham’s calculus doesn’t take into account the quality of the pleasure. It is
purely quantitative. Mill believed there are Higher & Lower pleasures.
Act Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism is what Bentham proposed. This involves using his hedonic calculus to add up the
amounts of pleasure and pain “for each possible act.” (Bentham) As J.J.C Smart puts it “Each action
must be assessed individually by its own particular consequences in its own particular
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