Aristotle believed that humans have a unique telos called Eudaimonia which is achieved through
rational thought. It involves happiness and thriving in society.
St Thomas Aquinas also believed that humans have a unique telos but instead of Eudaimonia, it is to
follow “the will of God.” His views are written in the book Summa Theologica.
Aquinas believed in a four-tiered hierarchy of law:
Eternal Law - The laws and principles of the universe known only to God
Divine Law - Law revealed through God’s divine revelation, such as in the Bible (particularly
in the 10 Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount)
Natural Law - An intrinsic moral guide placed in all humans by God, accessible through
reason. Innate inclinations and desires to do good.
Human Law
Ideally, all tiers of law should run in parallel and not contradict one another.
Aquinas believes that natural law is composed of precepts: general rules of behaviour and conduct.
The key precept, the most basic inclination of all people, is “to achieve good and avoid evil.”
God places five primary precepts inside all humans; innate, intuitive principles that guide us towards
our purpose. These are:
1. Preservation of life
2. Reproduction
3. Education and nurture of the young
4. Living peacefully in an ordered society
5. Worshipping God
The primary precepts are absolute and universal.
The five primary precepts are to be used in conjunction with ‘ratio’; our God-given faculty of reason.
This process is called casuistry and helps us create new, more specific moral rules called secondary
precepts.
The secondary precepts are more relative and subjective. However, they are written as fixed,
absolute rules in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.
Aquinas’ distinguishes between real good and apparent good.
- Actions that are real good have correctly used reason in conjunction with natural law.
- Apparent goods are actions that people think are good but in reality are bad. They are made
due to the misunderstanding of natural law or misuse of reason.
To solve moral dilemmas Aquinas introduced the doctrine of the double effect. If the intention
behind an action and its first effect are both good, then it is a good act even if it has an unintended
negative double effect. This double effect can be foreseen but not intended.
God knows the secrets of our heart and thoughts, which is why the intention of an action helps
determines if it is good or not.
An example of the double effect can be seen in the British Supreme Court case of the conjoined
twins Jodie and Mary. If the twins were surgically separated, then Mary would instantly die but Jodie
would survive. If the twins were left conjoined then they would both naturally die after around six
, months. The Lord Justice deemed the surgery lawful as Mary’s death “would not be the purpose or
intention of the surgery but a foreseen, inevitable consequence.”
What are strengths of natural law?
Different countries and cultures have different rules, but natural law is universal and therefore
transcends human law; God’s design is superior to human reason. This was seen in the prosecution
of Holocaust-orchestrator Adolf Eichmann, despite the fact that he was following German civil law. It
continues to produce good outcomes in our increasingly modern and secular society.
Natural law appeals to both atheists and theists. Most people, religious or not, agree that the
primary precepts are good outcomes to aim towards - they are not particularly controversial. Natural
law formed the moral foundation of the United Nations declaration of human rights which focuses
on the preservation of life and creating a peaceful, ordered society.
Jean Baudrillard argues that there is no such thing as Universal truth. There are many cultures that
completely disregard the primary precepts e.g senicide is still performed, often illegally, in many
cultures such as in Tamil Nadu, India. In 2020, YouGov found that 37% of Britons (who are not
already parents) never want to have children.
Richard Dawkins believes that our sole purpose on earth is to reproduce, not follow God’s will.
Many Atheists believe that humans do not have a natural inclination to worship God.
However, Aquinas would argue that everyone has an innate desire to worship God, but this desire
can be misplaced and directed towards something else e.g a celebrity or a football team.
Natural law provides the clarity of an absolutist normative ethical theory, but also the flexibility of a
situational ethical theory through casuistry and the secondary precepts.
However, by writing down secondary precepts as fixed, absolute rules in the Catechism of the
Catholic Church, you lose this flexibility.
Natural law takes the positives from both deontological and teleological ethics. You have the
deontological duty to follow acts that are intrinsically good, and these are defined by the primary
precents which are outcomes, and therefore teleological.
Natural law affirms the importance of reason which distinguishes us from other species. The fact
humans have the ability to think rationally is evidence for our special status from God.
Human reason is clouded in this postlapsarian age. Theists, such as fellow Catholic Calvin or
Augustine, believe that the fall in Exodus damaged the human capacity to reason. Therefore, the
conclusions reached to make secondary precepts may be wrong.
What are the weaknesses of natural law?
Natural law, according to leaders such as Pope John Paul II, puts an emphasis on the sanctity of life
rather than quality of life. The magisterium of the Church therefore oppose individual autonomy in
examples such as abortion, euthanasia, IVF, homosexuality.
