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Napoleon 20 markers13. The Directory was doomed from the start’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? [20]
Introduction: Explain the Directory and statement ‘doomed from start’
Theme 1 Political Problems: Old problems vs New problems (structure vs opposition)
From the very beginning of their period of power in France, the Directory were weak and disorganised due to
the poor structure and hierarchy of the executive powers- meant that they were indeed doomed form the start as
their poor structure meant they had little political authority.
- After the downfall of the Jacobins in 1794, France was to be ruled by a new governing committee of
five, known as the Directory. The national convention was replaced by two councils, the Council of
500, who initiated legislation, and the Council of Ancients, who approved or rejected legislation.
- The key aim of the new Directory and constitution was to prevent a certain group or person having too
much power as the CPS and Robespierre had had during the reign of terror. As a result, the constitution
had several weaknesses.
- Annual elections for both councils led to instability as over a third of members were replaced each
year, meaning that the majority of the directory would have been inexperienced
- There was no mechanism to resolve disputes between the directors and the two councils, which
subsequently lead to stalemate and inaction. Therefore, the overpowering fear the Directory had of one
person being too prominent in power, in actuality left the Directory, and subsequently France, in a
state of chaos with no one holding a position of power.
- However, not necessarily doomed to fail, the citizens of France could be argued to be apathetic to
further political instability and revolution following the events of terror, however the directory’s
ineptitude to deal with Frances issues showcased that they lacked the capability to be the political
authority.
- Also, the political acumen of Napoleon did not help the directories cause- wasn’t necessarily that they
were doomed from the start but more that Napoleon was such a strong alternative.
Theme 2 Economic Problems: Old problems vs New problems (debt vs policy)
As well as being politically weak, the Directory was economically weak and insecure; suggesting they were
doomed from the start.
- failed economic reforms, bankruptcy, characterised by failure.
- one could indeed argue that they were doomed from the start given that they inherited a substantial
amount of debt, which made it incredibly difficult to impart any reform.
- However, one must also argue that the situation was not irreparable, their own poor economic actions
exacerbated the situation and as such they weren’t doomed to failed; their actions solidified failure.
- Some extent inherited large amount of debt from the financial crisis of 1789 which had only been
worsened by the war with Austria. Also there had been much economic terror; death penalty for
hoarding, fixed price on grain under the general maximum etc- all of which did not foster an
economically stable position for the directory to inherit
- Moreover, the Thermidorian government had abolished price controls in 1794 which unleashed huge
amount of unrest due to hyperinflation of assignation, as seen through uprising of germinal and prairial.
- However, one has to also consider their own actions solidifing their downfall and not that they were
necessarily doomed. This is made clear through the Bankruptcy of Two- thirds. Dominique Ramel, the
Minister of Finance under the Directory, decided to close the government securities market and passed
a law cancelling de facto two-thirds of the public debt, as people genuinely could not afford to pay it-
led to huge ramifications as they had no finance or reserves and were surviving on the plunder coming
in from conquered territory
, - The Mandats territoriaux that they instated as a replacement of the assignat also failed and the value
depreciated rapidly within 6 months. It was proving too difficult for the directory to improve the
economic ruin of France, and it only led to further debt and financial crisis. Combination of both
system they inherited (doomed) and own poor actions (not doomed) that meant they failed to acheive
anything economically.
Theme 3 Social Problems: Old problems vs New problems (terror vs failings of directory)
- White terror had shown that royalist feeling remained strong and that the divisions caused by the
revolution, the terror, the assults on the church and that the divisions caused by the revolution
- Terror had created a huge variety of social problems: radicalism etc, as such they did inherit a
substantial amount of social opposition and ideological divisions, meaning they were potentially
doomed from the start.
- Hostility of counter- revolutionaries both left and right; never enjoyed much public support.
- Directory faced opposition form both royalists,who sought to restore the monarchy, and the radical
jacobins, who aimed to reinstate a more radical form of government. These opposition forced, along
with other poltiical factions, posed a constant threat to the stability and legitimacy of the directory.
Constant social opposition to their rule, suggesting they were doomed to fail (anyone who was going to
gain power following a period of terror was going to face issues of social unruliness).
- Babeuf conspiracy- pro jacobin plot. During the food shortages of 1795, Babeuf relentlessly attacked
the Thermidorian and directory governments for their lack of action. His writings became popular with
former jacobins and sans culottes; radical jacobin plot to overthrow the Directory and establish a more
egalitarian society. By spring 1796, 500,000 Parisians were reported to be starving, intensifying calls
for political change. Directory responded by arresting Babeuf and executing him in 1797.
- Coup of fructidor- 1797. Seizure of power in France by members of the directory with the support from
the french military- Napoleon. The coup was provoked by the results of elections held months earlier,
which had given the majority of the seats to royalist candidates, threatening a restoration of the
monarchy and a return of the ancien regime. Result- Paris was declared to be under marital law, while a
decree was issued, asserting that anyone supporting royalism was to be shot without trial. This is an
example of the directories own failings in being too harsh, thereby isolating much support.
- Vendemaire uprising 1795- royalist opposition to the directory. They desired the restoration of the
bourbon monarchy, plan involved taking control of strategic points in Paris and mobilising popular
support against the government. The insurgents launched attack, Bonaparte suppressed uprising and
was seen to bolster his military reputation following. Opposition to the directory had further adverse
effect of helping Napoleon elevate his position, setting stage for future rise to power. At Vendemaire
napoleon used notable whiff of grapeshot tactic which was key to dispersing the uprising.
14. “Napoleon Bonaparte was always destined to be a leader of France” How far do you agree with this
statement on Napoleon before 1799? [20]
Introduction: Napoleon Bonaparte was a strong presence throughout the 1790s, in particular after his success at
Toulon in 1793. Some suggest that his ability to exhibit strong leadership skills in military pursuits and his
cultivation of influence amongst high political people suggests that he was destined to lead France. His
successes were further exemplified by the failed Directory, and as the decade continued it became increasingly
more apparent that he was to take over once the Directory inevitably lost power. However, the argument that he
was destined to be a leader of France can be heavily questioned, following the reign of terror the main aim was
to prevent the return of centralised power and authority resting upon one peron so many would’ve opposed this
notion before 1799. Additionally, when the directory first established power, Napoleon was only a general, and
while this may have meant he had sufficient military powers, this by no means inferred he would lead the
country. Thus, the extent to which Napoleon was always destined to be a leader of France will be analysised
through the following themes: Military Leadership, Social , Political.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 - 1821) was a Corsican who became ruler of France from 1799 until his downfall in
1814. He gained control amid the chaos of the revolutionary wars, offering the prospect of military glory and
internal stability, both of which he initially achieved.
Themes 1: Military Leadership.
, Arguably, Bonaparte was an incredibly strong leader in his military pursuits as evidenced by Toulon and the
Italian campaign, suggesting that he was indeed destined to become leader. Not only had Napoleon been
instrumental in compelling anti-revolutionary British led resistance in Toulon 1793, but he had shut down the
royalist Vendemaire uprising in 1795 which earned him the position of commander to the army Interior when he
was only 26. The Italian Campaign clearly illustrated his strong leadership as he was responsible for leading his
men into victory at Lodi in 1796 whilst also invading the Papal States and taking key territories from the Pope.
Moreover, he was seen to personally negotiate the Treaty of Fromio in 1797 which saw a victorious end of the
first coalition with France gaining the Austrian Netherlands and the Cisalpine Republic. The fact that he was the
one to negotiate the terms of the Treaty and not the Directory suggests that he was already the de facto leader of
France, inferring that he was destined to be leader by 1799. His own military actions had been pivotal in his rise
of prominence as well as fulfilling the need of the public for a heroic figure. Just because he exhibited strong
military leadership skills does not mean he was destined to lead France, had it not been for the weaknesses of
the directory who relied on him extensively to end rebellion and bring in plunder from annexed territories, he
would’ve remained in the role of general. Therefore, his military leadership did not infer his destiny as emperor.
Additionally, he was not in as strong of a position by 1797 despite the Napoleonic myth leading the people to
believe otherwise; he still faced formidable Austrian forces, rebellions in French occupied territories and his
campaign lacked secure lines of communication. His Egyptian campaign can be largely characterised as a
failure, with his fleet being destroyed at Aboukir Bay in 1798 and his overly ambitious advance into the Middle
East met strong resistance from Turkish forces. Although, none of these failures in leadership and military
decision can be viewed as a detriment to his rise to power as his ability to continue to bolster the Napoleonic
myth meant that his reputation was barely effected. So thus, despite his failures he was still seen to hold
incredible power and influence over France and it could still be argued that he was destined to be a leader.
Theme 2: Social
- His ability to present himself in society meant he was destined to become leader of France- he
represented the ideals of the revolution to many as well as his string of military victories breeding
popularity amongst the French.
- Napoleon constantly talked about the Revolution- used it to his advantage
- Napoleon would become a great champion of the self-made man. He would become the idol of a great
many people, commoners who saw in Napoleon the possibilities of what a man of talent, what a man
blessed with ability, with ambition, could do if he were unfettered by the structures of the old regime.
- But he always tried to present himself on the one hand as a military man, a man of affairs, a pragmatist
in some ways, but also as the legitimate heir of the Revolution.
- Egyptian campaign- captured imagination of the people, his ability to promote and publiticse meant
failures were rarely talked about- exhibiting that he recognised how to gain the affections of the people
and that he was destined to lead by example.
- His enormous ambition and his great charisma were key to his appointment as First Consul and had
created a reputation in popular public opinion that he was to be the one who brought success to France.
One had seen this in his dealings with the troops—his troops in northern Italy (inspirational speeches,
fighting with them on foot etc) and his troops in Egypt (touching the plague victims at Jaffa) — all
indicate that he possessed the charismatic qualities necessarily to become leader- he had gained the
affection of his army and people with his charm, suggestign he waa destined to lead
- It was hardly a mystery that he would very quickly outmaneuver his two partners in this triumvirate, as
well as the legislative bodies of the regime.
- However, the coup of Brumaire is indicative of his dangerously ambitious nature and that he had not
fully gained the affections of the people and government- Radicals in the council of 500 put up an
unexpected resistance, determined to defend the republic from a military coup. Bonaparte was also
seen to embarrass himself- rashly stormed into the council, made threats, fell off his horse. Troops were
very much on the fence about opposing the Directory.
Theme 3: Political
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