How accurate is it to say that minority rights campaigns achieved considerable success in the years
1960-80?
Intro:
- 3 main minority groups: Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, Gay Americans
- Despite limitations, convincing to say campaigns for Native Americans and Hispanic Americans
achieved considerable success 1960-1980, however, less convincing to argue same success was
achieved by gay Americans
Native Americans:
Key aim #1 = Land:
- Many driven out of tribal homelands since 1830 Indian Removal Act Native Americans wanted new
treaties or to reclaim land and sacred sites
- American Indian Movement (AIM), slogan ‘Red Power’, targeted disputed land for relocations
- 1978, The Longest Walk from San Francisco to Washington
o 1970, Congress returned land at Blue Lake to the Taos Pueblo tribe
o 1971, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act transferred 40 million acres of land and
462,500,000 dollars to Native Alaskans
o Land returns often occurred after the land was occupied by protestors
However, no renegotiation about sacred sites, no overall solution to land issues,
states continued to evict Indians (e.g. Hawaii 1971)
Key aim #2 = Self-Determination:
- BIA had implemented regulations to break up Indian culture and damage tribal cohesion (Indian
Boarding Schools from 1893- 'assimilation') tribes wanted independence
- 1972, AIM Trail of Broken Treaties (protest BIA management)
o 1972 Indian Education Act (funds for tribal schools)
o 1974 Indian financing Act (lent tribes funding)
o 1975 Indian self-determination Act (kept BIA but contracted out healthcare/education)
However, no BIA reform
Despite this, considerable success directly from campaigns
Hispanic Americans:
Key aim #1: Workers’ Rights
- farm workers - bracero programme (1942-64), poor living/working conditions, illegal migrants, 'take it
or leave it' attitude, no unions
- Cesar Chavez non-violent campaign on working conditions, 1965 grape strike NFWA + AWOC
o 1975 California’s Agricultural Labor Relations Act (recognizes farm workers’ union rights)
Key aim #2: Legal rights + provision
- Despite 1954 SC ruled Hispanics were equal citizens, still discrimination, given least gov. provision
- Deportation: from 1953 deported millions of Hispanics (3.8 million in Operation Wetback )
o 1966 Congress's Cuban American Adjustment Act said all Cubans living in America for a year
were permanent residents No other Hispanic group given this right
- Jose Angel Gutierrez, ‘La Raza Unida’ party encouraged voting, better housing + education
o 1973, SC upheld 'equal provision of education' case vs. Texas school
o 1974 SC ruling on rights of Limited English Proficient (LEP) students in Lau v Nichols
o Case led to 1974 Equal Opportunities Act (more bilingual teaching in schools)
Level of enforcements of rights varied
Key aim #3: Land
- 1846-48 American-Mexican war ended by Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
- Reies Lopez Tijerina protests, marches, mass demonstrations
Land issues raised by protestors have still not been settled – major limitation
