Lecture notes
Adolescence: Chances and Risks
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Adolescence: Chances & RisksThe exam will comprise 48 multiple choice questions. Exam questions will cover the
assigned texts (book chapters), as well as the information presented in class lectures.
1. Introduction
There has been an emphasis on
the role and development of the
brain. This also has influence on
legal decisions, no death penalty
below the age of 18. Scientific data
from these brain imaging studies
was used to make a case for this
and the supreme court took this
evidence seriously and no more
adolescents were sentenced to
death. So should the knowledge
that we have about brain
development change how we
define adulthood? The important
parts of the brain we need to make rational decisions keep developing until the age of 25.
You can distinguish 4 different
stages of identity development. If
you have already explored options
and you have committed, this is
identity achievement and this marks
the end of adolescence.
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,In this book… Adolescence begins at the start of puberty and ends when individuals
transition into adult roles (roughly from age 10- early 20s). The start is defined by biological
factors and the end by the social perspective. This period has lengthened on both ends in the
last 100 years, the average age for moving out used to be 18 and now it’s 24.
There are large individual differences, not every
person makes the same transitions in the same
domains at the same time. Research found 3 main
groups of people and developmental patterns. If you
ask people when they expect to start living
independently, work, marry….
The early starters group were those who expected to
start working at 15, marry before 22…
Another group was the employment-focus who
expected to work and live independently before 20,
but to be married and have children later.
And the education-focused group expected to follow
studies till the latest age and marriage and parenting further in the future. So the question
would be what is typical for which adolescents in which context and moment in time.
FUNDAMENTAL CHANGES OF ADOLESCENCE
- Biological: onset of puberty
- Cognitive: emergence of more advanced thinking abilities
- Social: transition into new roles in society
CONTEXTS OF ADOLESCENCE
The effects of these changes depend on and interact with environmental factors and vary
across contexts. The ecological perspective on human development states that we cannot
understand development without examining the environment where it takes place. We will
consider the contexts of school, family & peer groups.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
They represent basic developmental challenges that we face as we grow and change:
- Discovering and understanding who we are (identity)
- Establishing a healthy sense of independence/autonomy (autonomy is feeling
free to decide what you are gonna do, you can autonomously decide to not live
independently, you can still be autonomous in your lack of independence)
- Forming close and caring relationships with other people (intimacy)
- Expressing sexual feelings and enjoying physical contact with others (sexuality)
- Being successful and competent members of society (achievement, motivation)
Theoretical Perspectives
Theories provide a framework from which to predict, and which can be tested and which is
falsifiable (can be proven wrong).
2
, Biosocial theories do not take social into account (name is confusing). They stress
hormones and physical changes and predict that adolescent behavior is the result of
hormone fluctuations for example. Hall theorized that adolescence is characterized by
experiencing storm and stress and this is caused by hormones and it is inevitable. This belief
that adolescence has inherently ups and downs is no longer the belief of scientists. More
recently, the dual systems theories focus more on the brain. The idea is that there is an
imbalance in the brain which is important for adolescent experiences.
Organismic theories look more into contextual factors such as conflicts (Freud→parent-
adolescent.relationships). Freud places psychosexual conflict as the central theme of
adolescence. Piaget talked about the cognitive transitions present in adolescence and views
adolescence as a period with very distinct cognitive phases.
Learning theories distinguish behaviorist (behavior is shaped by the consequences and
antecedents of behavior, this can be triggered by environmental factors like rewards) and
social learning (monkey see, monkey do: behavior is shaped by the examples that we see). If
an adolescent takes risks, we look at his friends.
Theories that see adolescence as a Sociological construct, adolescence is understood as
something typical of a group. It doesn't focus on individual differences but rather that
adolescents have much less influence and power than adults and this is why they behave the
way they do.
Historical/Anthropological theories look at adolescence as entirely a social invention. It
doesn't really exist. For example, in times when young people need to go to war,
governments emphasize that adolescents are mature and strong. Whereas when there are
other needs in society, they may emphasize that they are not ready and still immature.
There are many myths about adolescence…
➔ Myth: Adolescence is a distinct stage of development.
Adolescence literally means to “grow into adulthood”. It spans the second decade of life
and is a period of transition wherein a person’s biological, psychosocial, and social
characteristics go from childlike to adult-like, rather gradually. It’s more continuous rather
than distinct.
➔ Myth: It is a period of universal storm and stress.
Approximately a quarter of adolescents report significant behavior problems. Of these,
80% experienced problems in childhood. So less than 10% develop problematic
behavior during adolescence. Most of these engage in adolescent-limited deviance
(problems).
➔ Myth: It is when “new” hormones develop.
While hormonal levels do increase during adolescence, these hormones are present
during infancy. Until 8 weeks after gestation, all brains are feminine. Increases in
testosterone levels around 8 weeks after gestation “masculinizes” the brains of males.
All these hormones are already present during infancy, it’s just that the hormonal system
gets activated during adolescence. These prenatal effects of hormones on brain
development can appear during adolescence.
➔ Myth: It is when parents become less important.
Friends/romantic partners do become increasingly important during adolescence. BUT
parent-child relationships are “transformed” according to the expectations, needs, and
functions of these dyadic relationships, and relationships between all family members.
Importance of high quality parental relationships remains throughout adulthood. It
doesn’t become less important, but the parent-child relationship changes. (Moms usually
experience menopause during this time)
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