Changes in Health & Medicine
Unit 2 – Attempts to Prevent Illness & Disease
Medieval
Methods of Prevention
1. The Four Humours
− Hippocrates believed that diet, exercise and rest played a huge part in prevention of disease.
− Hippocrates was the first physician to view and treat the body as a whole.
− He believed that to prevent disease, you should keep the Four Humours in balance.
− Romans built aqueducts and had fresh, running water. However, much of this was lost when the
Romans left Britain around AD410.
2.Alchemists
− Alchemists were scientists that tried to turn ordinary metal to gold.
− Many searched for the ‘Elixir of Life’, which supposedly kept you young forever.
− Alchemists made medicine by repeatedly distilling vinegar, which removed impurities from the
body.
− Some medicines contained poisons such as mercury and would make the patient violently sick.
− Some paid alchemists large sums of money for turning lead into gold and for a longer life.
3.Soothsayers
− Soothsayers were local ‘wise women’ who had knowledge of sickness and disease.
− They had powers of prophesy and could supposedly see the future.
− They would collect plants, herbs and special stones, and would carry around a willow basket to
put together charms worn against evil.
− Mother Shipton was known for her prophecies and people crossed the country to see her.
− Her prophecies were first published in 1641. Prophecies believed that the world would end in
1881 or 1891.
4.Medieval Doctors
− There were about 100 medieval doctors in Britain.
− They trained in university in Italy or Oxford for 7 years and learnt about the Four Humours.
− Apothecaries made herbal remedies.
− Barber surgeons carried out surgery and lanced boils.
Industrial
, − During the 1700s, methods of preventions were promoted such as vegetarianism, teetotalism,
bloodletting, fresh air and exercise.
− Some people still encouraged Galen’s ideas, superstitious ideas and refused to accept new
ideas.
Methods of Prevention
1.Cold Water Treatment – Unchanged
− It was believed that water in places such as Llandrindod and Builth Wells promoted good health.
− Visiting Llandudno and Aberystwyth and swimming in the sea was also recommended.
− Some had their own ‘plunge pool’ in their garden.
− Eating ‘cooling’ food and drinking cold water supposedly cleared out impurities in the bowels.
2.Drinking Clean Water – Development
− John Snow plotted a map of all cholera cases in London and found that over 500 deaths
occurred in Broad Street.
− He noticed that brewery workers didn’t catch cholera as they drank beer rather than water.
− Unable to explain why, he noticed a link between the quality of water and rate of cholera.
− -By forcing those on Broad Street to drink elsewhere, he proved this.
3.Washing Hands – Development (not accepted)
− Alexander Gordon was a naval surgeon that worked in London.
− Gordon noticed that women treated in outlying villages by local midwives who treat fewer
patients rarely caught the fever.
− Yet those treated by midwives moving patient to patient were more likely to die.
− He proposed that medical practitioners wash their hands in chlorinated water.
− He published his results in 1795 but was ridiculed by everyone.
− In 1861, when Germ Theory was published, his ideas were finally taken seriously.
Inventions Used to Develop Methods of Prevention
− These methods of prevention were possible due to a series of inventions.
− Microscope (1590) - used to see infections
− Stethoscope (1860s) - used to listen to a patient breathing
− Kymograph (1847) - used for measuring blood pressure
A Case Study: Edward Jenner & Vaccination
Smallpox
− Smallpox is a contagious disease caused by the variola virus.
− It had a fatality rate between 30%-60%, there were 35,000 deaths in 1796 and 42,000 deaths in
1837-40.
− It affected all classes, for example, Queen Mary died in 1694 from smallpox.
, − Before vaccination, inoculation was used by Lady Mary Montagu found it in Istanbul and
brought it to England in 1721.
− A mild form of smallpox was introduced in a scratch between the finger and thumb.
− They developed a mild form of the disease but was immune to the stronger form.
Development of Vaccination
− Edward Jenner heard that a milkmaid survived smallpox as they previously had cowpox.
− Jenner investigated by experimenting on 8-year-old James Phipps.
− Jenner took pus from a cowpox pustule and placed it in an incision on Phipps arm. He developed
cowpox and recovered.
− After infecting Phipps with smallpox, Jenner found that Phipps was immune.
− He submitted a paper to the Royal Society in 1797 about his findings but was told he had no
proof.
− After experimenting on other children, he published his results in 1798 and took the name
vaccine from Latin (vacca for cow).
− In 1802, he was awarded £10,000 by the government and £20,000 in 1807.
− Despite being laissez-faire, the government made vaccination compulsory in 1852.
− Jenners vaccination method would later be used by Louis Pasteur and Robert Kock for TB.
Why Vaccination was Limited
− The church found it repulsive to inoculate yourself with a diseased animal.
− There was an anti-vaccine league set up in 1866 that marched and protested.
− The doctors found their large incomes threatened by the government's free vaccinations.
− Jenner couldn’t explain the link between cowpox and smallpox.
− It was not always successful, and some doctors didn’t carry out the procedure carefully.
− Jenner’s vaccination only cured 1 disease.
− In 1869, Dr Haviland objected to compulsory vaccination in Cardiff.
Why Vaccination was Important
− Jenner worked in a scientific way and did a number of tests, encouraging scientific enquiry.
− Jenner shared his work with others to ensure it was correct and allow others to benefit.
− In 1980, it was announced that smallpox was extinct.
− The remaining samples are highly guarded in laboratories in USA and Russia.
− In 1802, the Jennerian Society encouraged everyone to get vaccinated. 2 years later 12,000 were
vaccinated.
− Napoleon in France and President Jefferson in USA though vaccination was a break-through.
Modern
A Case Study: Vaccination
, − Using vaccination, the World Health Organisation have created vaccination for many diseases,
Whooping Cough (1952), Polio (1955), Measles (1963), MMR (1988), Hepatitis B (1994).
− It also became common to receive antimalarial and anti-yellow fever vaccination when
travelling.
− In 1800, the infant mortality rate averaged 150 per thousand, these days this is 4-5 per
thousand.
− In 1853, the government introduced the Vaccination Act of 1853 and in 1867, the act extended
the age and imposed penalties.
The MMR Debate – Opposition to Vaccination
− The Anti-Vaccination and Anti-Compulsory Vaccination leagues were formed.
− In 1998, Dr Andrew Wakefield reported that there was evidence of a link between the MMR
vaccination and autism, this has been disproved.
− Evidence shows that 1% of children will experience an adverse reaction to vaccination.
− The UK Vaccine Payment was set up to help those badly affected by vaccination and has paid
out 20 times in 10 years.
− Current rates are not high enough to ensure immunity at around 95%.
Unit 3 – Attempts to Cure Illness & Disease
Medieval
Attempts to Cure & Treat
1.Herbal Remedies
− Herbal remedies, some of which were effective, were widely used.
− Books called ‘herbals’ detailed potions and gave advice of when to pick herbs depending on
astrology.
− Some include:
▪ Mint for stomach problems
▪ Coriander for fevers
▪ Garlic for wounds
▪ Lavender for headaches
2.Urine Charts
− Urine charts were used for diagnosis and treatment.
− Urine was checked visually, smelt and tasted.
− Doctors still use urine tests but much more accurate tests.
3.Welsh Treatments
The Physicians of Myddfai:
− Rhiwallon Feddyg were court physicians to Rhys Gryg, Lord of Deheubarth.
