Summary
Summary Psychology AQA Research Methods Notes
Psychology AQA Research Methods Notes
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Experimental method• Aims – statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.
• Hypotheses (directional/non-directional) – a clear, testable statement that states the relationship between
the variables to be investigated. Non-directional correlation “relationship”, difference “association”.
• Independent variable - some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher – so
the effect of the DV can be measured.
• Dependent variable – variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on DV should be caused by
change in the IV.
• Operationalisation - clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Research issues
Extraneous variable – any variable, other than the independent variable, that may affect the dependant
variable if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systemically within IV.
Affects DV.
Cofounding variables – a kind of EV but the key feature is that a cofounding variable varies systemically with
the IV. Therefore, we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the cofounding variable. Affects DV
and IV.
Demand characteristics – any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted
by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their
behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects – any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious and unconscious) on the research
outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction
with, participants during the research process.
Randomisation – the use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and
deciding the order of experimental conditions.
Standardisation – using the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research
study.
Experimental designs
Independent groups design Participants allocated to different Participant variables
groups where each group Not economical
represents one experimental Less chance of demand
condition. Performance of the characteristics
two groups is then compared. Order effects doesn’t matter
Repeated measures All participants take part in all Order of tasks is significant
conditions of experiment the two Demand characteristics
mean scores from both conditions Participant variables controlled
would be compared to see if More economical
there is a difference.
Matched pairs design Pairs of participants are matched Can’t be matched perfectly
on some variables that may affect Time consuming and expensive
the DV. One member of the pair is Less chance of demand
assigned to condition A the other characteristics
to condition B. Attempts to
control cofounding variable. Use
of pre-test often needed.
Types of experiment
, Lab experiments Experiment that takes place in High control of variables
controlled environment. Replication easier
Researcher manipulates IV and Hard to generalise
records effect on DV, strict Participants aware of experiment
control of extraneous variables. Not realistic
Field experiments Experiment takes place in a More authentic behaviour
natural setting within which the Lack of control of variables
researcher manipulates the IV Participants may not give consent
and records the effect on DV.
Natural experiment Experiment where change in IV is Opportunity for research that
not brought about by researcher might not be otherwise
but would have happened even if undertaken
researcher had not been there. High external validity
Researchers record effect on DV Event may only happen rarely
they have decided on. Participants not allocated
randomly
Quasi study Study that is almost an Controlled conditions
experiment but lacks key Cofounding variables
components. The IV has not been Cause and effect relationships are
determined by anyone – variables difficult to establish
simply exist.
Sampling
Random sampling Form of sampling in which all Unbiased
members of target population Time consuming + difficult
have equal chance of being Can be unrepresentative
selected. Lottery method used to Participants may refuse to take
select actual sample. part
Systematic sampling Every nth member of target Objective
population is selected. Sampling Time consuming
system nominated. May begin Participants may refuse to take
from random start to reduce bias. part
Sampling frame worked through
until sample is complete.
Stratified sampling Compositions of sample reflect Representative
proportions of people in certain Complete representation not
subgroups within the target or possible
wider population.
Opportunity sample Many researchers decide to select Convenient and cheap
anyone who happens to be willing Unrepresentative
and available. Researcher bias
Volunteer sample Participants selecting themselves Quick
to be part of the sample Engaged participants
Volunteer bias
Ethical issues – Consent, deception, protection from harm, debrief, privacy.
Conflict between participants rights and researchers need for meaningful findings.
British Psychological Society – code of ethics. Researchers have obligation to observe.
Informed consent - participants aware aims, procedures, their rights + what data is used for. Participants make
informed judgement on whether to take part without feeling obliged. Makes study meaningless to researcher
as behaviour not natural.
Participants issued with consent letter detailing all relevant info. This is then signed.
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