Summary
Psychopathology Summary A* Notes, AQA
- Module
- Psychopathology
- Institution
- AQA
AQA Alevel Psychology, Psychopathology notes, with PEEL summaries.
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Validity.Spec says, ‘Types of validity across all methods of investigation: face validity, concurrent
validity, ecological validity and temporal validity. Assessment of validity and improving
validity.’
Key Term:
- Validity = the extent to which observed effect is genuine – does it measure what it
was supposed to measure, and can it be generalised beyond research setting within
which it was found.
Internal validity.
- Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to
the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor.
- One major threat to internal validity is demand characteristics, where P’s act in a
way that they think is expected.
o They are playing along with a situation, rather than thinking that it is real.
External validity.
- This relates more to factors outside of the investigation, such as generalising to other
settings, other populations of people and other eras.
Ecological validity.
- This is a type of external validity, it concerns generalising the findings from a study to
other settings, most particular to ‘everyday life’ as that is what psychologists are
most interested in studying.
- If the task used in the lab to be studied is not like everyday life then it has lower
ecological validity.
Temporal validity.
- This is the issue of whether the findings from a particular study, or concepts within a
particular theory, hold true over time.
o Such as the idea of ‘penis envy’ from Freud, which are deemed to be
outdated, sexist and a reflection of the patriarchal society Freud lived in.
Ways of assessing validity.
Face validity.
- This is a basic form of validity, which suggests that on the face of it if a scale, test or
measure appears to measure what it is meant to.
- This tends to be done by ‘eyeballing it’.
Concurrent validity.
- This occurs when the results obtained are very close to or match those obtained on
another recognised, well-established test.
- Close agreement between the two sets of data would indicate that the new test has
high concurrent validity, seen if the correlation between the two sets score exceeds
+0.80 .
,Improving validity.
Experiments.
- Using a control group means that the researcher is able to assess whether changes in
the dependent variable were due to the effects of the independent variable.
- Using standardised procedures minimises the impact of participant reactivity and
investigator effects on the validity of the outcome.
o The use of single-blind and double-blind procedures is designed to achieve
the same aim.
o In a single blind procedure, P’s do not know the aims of the study until they
have taken part, so this reduces the effects of demand characteristics.
o In a double blind procedure, a third party conducts the investigation without
knowing its main purpose, to reduce both demand characteristics and
investigator effects and thus improves validity.
Questionnaires.
- Many questionaries and psychological tests incorporate a lie scale within the
questions in order to assess the consistency of a respondent’s response and to
control for the effects of social desirability bias.
- Validity may be further enhanced by assuring respondents that all data submitted
will remain anonymous.
Observations.
- Observational research may provide findings that have high ecological validity as
there may be minimal intervention by the researcher.
o This is especially the case if the observer remains undetected, as in covert
operations, as all behaviours are likely to be natural and authentic.
- In addition, behavioural categories that are too broad, overlapping or ambiguous
may have a negative impacts on the validity of the data collected.
Qualitative research.
- Qualitative methods of research are usually thought of as having higher ecological
validity than more quantitative, less interpretative methods of research.
o This is because the depth and detail associated with case studies and
interviews, as they are better able to reflect a participants reality.
- However, a researcher may still have to demonstrate the interpretive validity of their
conclusions.
o This is the extent to which the researchers' interpretations of events matches
that of the participants, which can be demonstrated through the inclusion of
direct quotes from P’s within the report.
- Validity is further enhanced through triangulation, which is the use of a number of
different sources as evidence.
, The behavioural approach to explaining phobias.
Spec says, ‘The behavioural approach to explaining phobias: the two process model,
including classical and operant conditioning.’
Key Terms:
- Behavioural approach = a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable
in terms of learning.
- Two-process model = an explanation for the onset and persistence of disorder that
create anxiety, such as phobias. The two processes are classical conditioning for
onset and operant conditioning for persistence.
- Classical conditioning = learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are
repeatedly paired together – an unconditioned stimulus and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus.
The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced
by the unconditioned stimulus alone.
- Operant conditioning = a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and
maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
The two-process model.
- The behavioural approach emphasises the role of learning in the acquisition of
behaviour. The approach focuses on behaviour – what we can see.
- The behavioural approach is geared towards explaining these rather than the
cognitive and emotional aspects of phobias.
- Mowrer proposed the two process model based on the behavioural approach to
phobias. This states phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and then continue
because of operant conditioning.
Acquisition by classical conditioning.
- Classical conditioning involves learning to associate something of which we initially
have no fear (called a neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear
response (known as an unconditioned stimulus).
- Watson and Rayner created a phobia in a 9 month old baby, called ‘Little Albert’.
o Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study, when shown a
white rat he tried to play with it. However, when the experimenters then set
out to give Albert a phobia,
o Whenever the rat was presented to Albert the researchers made a loud,
frightening noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear.
o The noise is an unconditioned stimulus which creates an unconditioned
stimulus which creates an unconditioned response of fear.
o When the rat and the UCS are encountered close togtehr in time the NS
becomes associated with the UCS and both now produce the fear response,
as Albert displayed fear when he saw the rat.
o The rat is now a learned or conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned
response.
o This conditioning then generalised to similar objects. They tested Albert by
showing him other furry objects such as a non-white rabbits, a fur coat and a
Santa Clause beard , Little Albert dispalyed distress at the sight of them.
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