Child Language Acquisition:
Spoken Acquisition:
Stages of Acquisition -:
Holophrastic/One-word stage (12 months) - Child will say their first word (usually a noun like 'dada',
'milk' etc.).
Two-word stage (18-24 months) - Communication with the subject verb (e.g. I do) or verb object (e.g.
want juice) structure.
Telegraphic stage - Rapid explosion in language, with children adding to their vocabulary daily.
Longer, more complicated Mean Length Utterances (MLU) are achieved.
This stage is characterised by omission of function words i.e. prepositions, determiners and
auxiliary verbs. Here, there is likely to be grammatically incomplete utterances.
Post-telegraphic stage - Where toddlers pick up on adverbs (e.g. quickly, yesterday etc.), auxiliary verbs
(e.g. was, have etc.) and determiners (e.g. a, the etc.). Here, there is likely to be grammatically complete
utterances.
By 3 years of age, most children can use language to:
Negotiate.
Form relationships
Get themselves out of trouble.
Be creative.
Assert their identity.
Phonological errors -:
All children make them.
We can look at them and see how parents correct or handle them, and what the most common
errors are.
However, parents ignore them most of the time (as evidenced by Brown and Hanlon*).
Term Explanation Example(s)
Deletion Omitting the final consonant in words. Do(g), Cu(p)
Substitution Substituting one sound for another - 'Pip' substituted in place of 'ship'
especially harsh sounds that develop later.
Addition Adding an extra vowel sound. Doggie
Assimilation Changing a consonant or vowel for another. 'Gog' and 'dog' - 'g' replaces 'd'
Reduplication Repeating a whole syllable. 'Dadda', 'Mumma'
Consonant cluster Children reduce them because they are 'Paghetti' for 'spaghetti'
reduction difficult.
Deletion of Omitting the opening syllable. 'Nana' for 'banana'
unstressed
syllable
Semantic errors -:
Under-extension - occurs when a word is given a narrower meaning than it has in adult language
(e.g. using the word 'cat' for the family pet but not applying it to other cats).
, Over-extension - occurs when a word is given a broader, more general meaning than it should
have (e.g. using 'daddy' not just for the child's father but for all men).
Michael Halliday's Taxonomy (functions of language) - If Richard Is Present His Intelligence Radiates.
Instrumental - fulfil a need (e.g. want milk).
Regulatory - influence behaviour of others (e.g. pick up).
Interactional - develop and maintain social relationships (e.g. love you).
Personal - convey opinions/ideas about identity (e.g. me like Charlie and Lola).
Heuristic - learn about the environment (e.g. what's that?).
Imaginative - create an imaginary world (e.g. me shopkeeper).
Representational - convey facts and opinions (e.g. it’s big).
Language is a way of discovering the world.
1) Behaviourism -:
Skinner - Argued that children learn language based on behaviourist reinforcement principles by
associating words with meanings.
Correct utterances are positively reinforced (e.g. through praise/rewards).
Incorrect utterances are negatively reinforced (e.g. parents might correct their child in an
assertive manner, so children will seek to avoid this by using the corrected utterance).
Skinner also argued that children learn through imitation of their parents. This, combined with
reinforcement, is how we acquire language.
Furthermore, he viewed language acquisition as a cognitive behaviour operant conditioning (a
child goes through a trial-and-error process). This occurs through reinforcement and shaping
provided by the parent's gestures (e.g. smiling, attention, approval etc.) which are present to the
child.
Evaluation (Behaviourism):
*Brown and Hanlon - Say that parents do not tend to consistently correct language errors -
most corrections are focused on telling the truth and manners. Observational studies by them in
1970 show that parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a child's speech, instead focusing on
truth and accuracy of statements.
Other One Spoon Study - Implicates that the child is not cognitively ready to imitate the 'other
spoon' construction, instead saying 'other one spoon'. Therefore, negative reinforcement
doesn't always have an impact.
Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says (especially if the adult uses a structure
the child is unfamiliar with. Those who have not acquired language during their critical period
will never catch up.
This approach is too simplistic and over-generalised. Skinner viewed babies as 'empty vessels'
whereby language must be inserted. Yet, children do not always imitate.
However, we can see some credence in what Skinner says.
2) Nativism/innate theory - Language is innate; a biological function.
Noam Chomsky - Argued that children would never be able to acquire language if it simply relied on the
input.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - Chomsky's idea of an innate capacity for language learning
in humans.
,Theory of Universal Grammar - The idea that there are innate biological grammar categories (e.g. noun
category, verb category etc.). Children instinctively know how to use language rules (e.g. how to
combine a noun such as 'boy' and a verb such as 'eat' into a meaningful phrase such as 'the boy eats').
Evidence of language being biologically hardwired in the brain:
1) Children, regardless of where they are in the world/what their first language is, all pick up language at
a similar pace, as well as passing through similar stages at a similar ages and speeds.
2) Children know the verb/subject or subject/verb order of their first language and never get their
constructions mixed-up in terms of this order.
Poverty of stimulus - Language children hear is not complete. Whilst they hear an imperfect language,
they are still able to produce a perfect language (look for this in the data).
Virtuous errors - Overextending suffixes (e.g. I ranned really fast).
Children do not trade their immature speech for mature speech all at once.
Language rules take time to be implemented.
The Wug Test (Gleason 1958) - Examined the idea that children over-generalise grammar rules by using
nonsense words to gauge children's acquisition of morphological rules.
Children shown simple pictures of an imaginary creature/activity with a made-up name.
The test showed that language is innate.
Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg 1967) - Primary language acquisition must occur during a 'critical
period'. He believed that this ended at around the age of puberty, although others say that this is
earlier.
It is believed that if children are not properly exposed to language before the end of this critical
period that they will never be able to fully acquire language.
Language that occurs after this period will be slower and less successful.
Evidence (Genie Case Study):
It would be highly unethical to purposely remove a child's exposure to language.
Genie, a young girl, was locked in a small room for 18 months.
Before this point, Genie was beginning to acquire language.
Her mother, blind, was also abused by her schizophrenic father, and so was unable to help
Genie.
At 13 years of age, Genie was freed, giving researchers a highly rare and sought-after
opportunity to explore the Critical Period Hypothesis.
As an adult, her language is quite immature; she produces mostly nouns, some verbs, but very
few adjectives and adverbs.
Her utterances are often no more than 3 words.
After intensive language training and psychotherapy, Genie has not been able to acquire normal
language skills.
3) Interaction - Theorists who associate themselves with this view believe that innate theorists like
Chomsky do not place enough emphasis on the environment. They are not saying that there is no
biological imperative; Chomsky has grossly underestimated the importance of the environment, making
Nativism limited - not incorrect.
Jerome Bruner - Suggests that all children need a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) in order
to acquire language successfully. This is the people who help scaffold the child's language.
Best known for his discovery learning theory, whereby (child or adult) learners retain knowledge
best when they discover knowledge for themselves.
Argues that an adult and an infant have conversations despite the child being unable to speak.
, The interaction between the two (e.g. games, non-verbal communication etc.) build the
structure of language long before the child is able to communicate verbally.
Child-Directed Speech (Bruner) - How adults speak differently to infants than to others. When talking,
they use high-pitched and elongated words in an exaggerated manner, with lots of facial expressions.
Features (CDS):
Phonology -:
Distinct, separate phrases, with long pauses.
Use exaggerated ‘singsong’ intonation, which helps to emphasise key words and the difference
between exclamatives and interrogatives.
Use a higher and wider pitch range.
Phonetic addition (e.g. doggie).
Grammar/speech -:
Simpler constructions.
Frequent use of imperatives and interrogatives.
High degree of repetition.
Lexis and semantics -:
Use of concrete nouns (e.g. cat, train etc.) and dynamic verbs (e.g. give, put etc.).
Use of personal names instead of pronouns (e.g. ‘Mummy’ rather than ‘I’).
Repeated use of child's name.
Fewer verbs, modifiers and adjectives.
Pragmatics -:
Deixis used to point child’s attention to objects or people.
Use of expansions (where the adult fills out the child’s utterance).
Use of re-castings (where the child’s vocabulary is put into a new utterance).
Remember to say why the CDS is used (e.g. type of positive reinforcement, to help cognitive
understanding etc.).
Support (CDS):
Clarke-Stewart (1973) - Found that children whose mothers talk more have larger vocabularies.
Sally Goddard Blythe - Consultant in neuro-developmental education who found that singing
lullabies before they learn to speak is "an essential precursor to later educational success."
Researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Connecticut found that "the
prevalence of baby talk...is linked with better language development" after examining thousands
of 30-second snippets of verbal exchanges between parents and babies.
The NHS encourages CDS through visitors as they believe it promotes bonding.
Some claim that CDS retains the attention of the child, whilst others argue that it makes
language more accessible.
Evaluation (CDS):
Some claim that children learn by repetition - can this explain the fact that children can produce
sentences which they have never heard before? (Ibbotson)
Others claim that ‘baby talk’ actually interferes with language development because children
learn babyish words and sentences instead of the real language.
Not every culture uses such forms of child-directed speech. In Samoa and Papua New Guinea,
adults speak to children as they speak to adults, and children still acquire language at the same
pace as elsewhere.
, Ritualised activities - Bruner also looked at mealtimes, bedtimes and reading books, indicating that
caregivers make linguistic rules and meanings explicit/predictable during these interactions so that
children can learn.
Bruner's Four-Phase Structure - Bruner found a four-phase structure in a caregiver's interactions with
their child, whilst sharing a book - an example of a LASS provided by the parent.
1. Gaining attention - drawing attention to a picture.
2. Query - asking the baby to identify the picture.
3. Label - telling the baby what the object is.
4. Feedback - responding to the baby's utterance.
Zone of proximal development - Describes how children and caregivers work together to move towards
independence, knowledge and competence i.e. scaffolding.
Paul Ibbotson (2012) - The usage-based approach:
Focused on 'chunking', seeing very rich language in the child's language, taking the form of
thousands of words spoken to or around the child.
Children learn short phrases, then can take these constructions/chunks and put them into a new
construction.
They can internalise different word forms and understand that they can be used in other
constructions (e.g. Where is mummy/daddy/doggie etc.).
Therefore, children are not copying - they are picking up 'chunks' of language and creating very
productive structures adapting them to generate new and creative forms of their own.
This gives them a foothold into learning more complex syntax.
Katherine Nelson - Views language acquisition as a bridge between a child's social and cultural growth
with their growing knowledge of the world.
Thinks that children learn words that fit into the context of a scene.
This suggests that children understand the referential nature of words.
Children show a mature understanding of the referential nature of words when they point at
things and ask about their names.
Also maintains that "expansion coupled with re-casting improved children's ability to imitate."
(Agreeing with Skinner in one regard, although implicating that parents help).
Vygotsky - Russian psychologist who created a model of human development now called the
sociocultural model.
Believed that all cultural development in children is visible in two stages:
1. First, the child observes the interaction between other people.
2. Then the behaviour develops inside the child.
This means that the child first observes the adults around him communicating amongst
themselves and then later develops the ability himself to communicate.
He also theorised that a child learns best when interacting with those around him to solve a
problem.
At first, the adult interacting with the child is responsible for leading the child (need for a more
knowledgeable other) and eventually, the child becomes more capable of problem solving on
their own.
This is true with language, as the adult first talks at the child and eventually the child learns to
respond in turn.
Therefore, the child moves from gurgling to baby talk to more complete and correct sentences.
Pragmatics - Support interaction and role of environment - crucial to a child's successful language
development. Also act as limitations of Nativism.
Implicature.
