Thematic Study
The Government and Rulers
Potential Subthemes
Structure
Ideology
Foreign Influence
Attitude to Reform
Rebellion
Nature of Manchu Rule in 1839
Ruled by Manchu dynasty emperor, from the Forbidden City within the
capital Beijing.
The right to rule was enforced due to Confucianism, as obedience to a
higher power was viewed as a duty. MANDATE OF HEAVEN
Power centralised, as emperor maintained complete authority over all
subjects and officials
Absolutism – power did not spread downwards
Mandarins – Confucian scholars who comprised the class of officials who
made up the administration of the government and governed local
provinces.
Mandarins left a ‘tradition pf bureaucratic control’ that was then mirrored
by the CCP – CONTINUITY
Reasons for and responses to rebellion
Taiping Rebellion
o 1850-1864
o Started in Guandong province, with people protesting against the
poor economy exacerbated by harvest failure and high taxation,
then developed into a generally nationalist movement.
o Led by Hong Xiuqan – claimed to be Jesus’ brother.
o Hong campaigned against the Manch and their regime.
o 20,000 followers by 1850, and continued to grow
o Repulsed all government attempts to stop them.
o Took Nanjing, killed 30,000 Manchu prisoners.
o Constructed a communist community in Nanjing over the next ten
years, with strict imposition.
o Controlled a large part of southern China, with an army of over
500,000.
o Initially received support from foreign missionaries, due to religious
links.
o Support lost due to corruption of Christian teaching and brutal
methodology.
o Manchu forces, assisted by Charles Gordon (English) dissuaded
attempts to take Shanghai (1860-1862).
o Took till 1864 for the regime to be overcome, and Hong killed
himself.
o Reasons for failure:
Brutality alienated Chinese who could have supported them
Dissension within Taiping ranks
Movement of peasantry who didn’t win gentry support
Lost support of Britain and France
Western support for Qing, e.g. Gordon
Zeng Guofan – succeeded in organising Manchu military.
, o The amount of time it took for the government to react and reliance
on foreign support damaged credibility.
Nian Rebellion
o 1853-1868
o Protest against lack of economic support from the Qing for repairs
following Yellow River flooding.
o Eventually failed due to inability to link up with other rebellions.
Panthay Rebellion
o 1856-1873
o Muslim protests against Qing oppression.
o Failed due to French support for the Qing and exacerbation of
divisions.
Dungan Rebellion
o Set pf local struggles that was not primarily against the Qing.
o Took 15 years before the rebels were quashed.
Obstacles to reform under Cixi
Cixi was VERY conservative, opposed essentially all reform
She was opposed to the Self Strengthening Movement of 1861 – 1895.
o Movement was backed by reformers Zeng Guofan and Li
Hongzhang, and focused on admin, commerce, finance, textiles,
steamships, telegraph, and railways reform.
E.g. established joint-stock companies, investing in
steamships, and opening cotton mills in Shanghai.
o Cixi and her conservative faction were in opposition of this.
100 Days Reform 1898 were started to majorly reform China, backed by
Emperor Guangxu and Kuang Hsu.
o Reforms included education and industrial reform, and development
of civil service
o Cixi and her conservative faction took over, placing the Emperor
under house arrest and executing many reformers.
o She then attempted to funnel the national empowerment generated
by the 100 days of reform to fight back against “foreign devils”
o She then gave her backing to the Boxers
Reforms after 1900
The Boxer Protocol - In reaction to the Boxer Uprising of 1898-1900, the
government lost sovereignty over the areas heavily involved in the
Uprising.
Therefore, significant loss of what prestige they had left.
Little popular sympathy from the people.
Late Qing Reforms then rushed into from 1901 to save the dynasty.
o Administrative reform undertaken.
o Local autonomy established, e.g. Tianjin County Council
o Western style schools established
o Imperial examinations abolished.
o Foreign affairs office established in 1901
o Army reorganized into New Army
Reasons for the 1911 Revolution
Businessmen opposed government as they showed disinterest in
economic growth – loans with Western countries were being considered
along with higher taxes.
As Qing lost significant amounts of support, people turned to reformists
like Sun Yatsen who had been in exile.
, He found himself going from a dangerous revolutionary in the public eye
to a Chinese hero and gained the support of a large portion of the
population.
He believed in a Chinese Republic, and also campaigned for Western
political and economic ideas.
Sun Yat Sen and the new Republic
Sun Yatsen returned to China after the Repulic was declared to be
established, and was named president on 1 st of January 1912
Yuan Shikai was nominated by the Qing dynasty to regain control of China.
Yuan hated both the concept of a Republic and the Manchu dynasty.
He negotiated with the revolutionaries. If they made him president instead
of Sun Yatsen, he would make the Manchu abdicate and introduce a
workable constitution.
Sun Yatsen said he would be willing to let Yuan become president; a deal
was made, and the Manchu dynasty was forced to abdicate.
The Rule of Yuan Shikai 1912-1916
After Manchu abdication Sun Yatsen’s Alliance League declared itself a
parliamentary party by the name Guomindang (GMD)
1913 – Yuan negotiates a large foreign loan, accepting the demands of a
six nation banking consortium set up in 1911.
1913 consortium offered a $100 million loan. If:
o They pledged future tax revenues as a security.
o They recognised Britain’s control of Tibet.
o They recognised Russia’s control of Outer Mongolia
Therefore, continued loss of Chinese independence.
GMD attempted Second Revolution, but Yuan put a stop to it.
Yuan’s power relied on generals being willing to support him and he was
greatly indebted to foreign powers.
21 Demands 1915 – Japanese encroachment – would mean even less
Chinese sovereignty.
Yuan declares himself emperor in 1916 – attempt at even further
centralising of power (before less centralised because of lack of control in
the South and reliance on generals and foreign loans).
This was very unpopular, generals defected, provinces revolted, he
renounced the throne and died three months later.
Warlord China
Complete devolvement of centralised power.
Yuan’s commanders devolved to infighting and China devolved to
separate warlord rule.
Each one became an autocrat deciding his own administrative, economic,
and legal systems.
Most were primarily militarily dictated in nature.
Gave stimulus to the expression of Chinese Nationalism in the May the
Fourth Movement, that demonstrated the people’s anger at the
government as they were refused the right to self-determination after
World War 1.
21 Demands and refusal of self-determination in 1919 reflected the risk of
complete loss of sovereignty of the Chinese government.
The Guomindang, Sun Yatsen and Jiang Jieshi
Sun Yatsen (1912-1925)
o Sun returned to China in 1917 and set up a rival government in
Guanzhou to challenge regime in Beijing. (lack of one centralised
government)
