Philosophy of Science Summary chapter
8
Addressing Concerns with Nomological and Pattern Conceptions - correct answer--Causal
explanations automatically solve the asymmetry problem present in nomological and pattern
accounts
-Causal explanations can range from general patterns to highly specific instances,
addressing concerns about generality
Aim of Science - correct answer-Science aims not only to confirm hypotheses but also to
explain the world, understand why and how things happen, and provide tools for predicting
and changing the world
Asymmetry Issue - correct answer--Both conceptions face objections related to asymmetry
in explanations
-The ability to explain one thing does not necessarily imply the ability to explain the reverse
Balancing Values and Objectivity - correct answer--Recognition that scientists have diverse
values, and social context can influence scientific findings
-The value-free ideal is not entirely achievable, but science should limit the influence of
values while acknowledging their role
-The need for a balanced approach where values play a role, but science is guided by
evidence and reasoning
Causal Conception of Explanation - correct answer--Explanations appeal to causes that
bring about the phenomenon to be explained
-This conception is considered effective in explaining phenomena, especially in fields dealing
less with laws
Causal Patterns in Phenomena - correct answer--Many laws and patterns in different fields
are referred to as effects, such as the Garcia effect in psychology
-Examples include primacy and recency effects, the self-explanation effect, and the Larsen
effect in acoustics
Challenges in Accessibility and Communication - correct answer--Inaccessibility of scientific
studies due to paywalls limits public and scientific community access
-Science reporting in mainstream media often involves inaccuracies and exaggerations due
to an incentive structure favoring sensationalism
Challenges in Defining Laws - correct answer--Philosophers debate the criteria for
something to be considered a law
-Few, if any, scientific laws satisfy all the proposed criteria, leading to ongoing discussions
about what qualifies as a scientific law
, Challenges to Science and Scientific Authority - correct answer--Discussion of the most
pressing challenges to science and scientific authority in the contemporary world
-Recognition that science, while a powerful knowledge-generating tool, has been historically
entangled with morally repugnant actions and objectives
Challenges to Science's Objectivity and Trustworthiness - correct answer--Science achieves
objectivity through self-correction, openness to criticism, and intersubjective processes
-Challenges arise from the incentive structure in science, impacting how scientific findings
are shaped and undermining trust and objectivity
Challenges to the Value-Free Ideal - correct answer--Science's spotty track record in
achieving freedom from political and economic values raises skepticism about the value-free
ideal
-Historical examples, such as Darwin's evolutionary theory and eugenics, highlight the
influence of values on science
Chemical Revolution - correct answer--The 18th-century Chemical Revolution, led by
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, aligns with Thomas Kuhn's model of scientific revolutions
-Rooted in Aristotelian elements, the phlogiston theory explained combustion until anomalies
surfaced
-Lavoisier proposed a new theory involving oxygen, leading to a paradigm shift in chemistry
-This transition marked the beginning of normal science, with Lavoisier's ideas widely
adopted by young chemists, showcasing the revolutionary nature of scientific progress
Clarifying Scientific Explanation - correct answer--Given the centrality of explanation in
science, it is crucial to clarify the nature of scientific explanation
-Identifying features of good explanations is essential for evaluating the adequacy of
explanations
Complications in Theory Change - correct answer--The challenge of theories relying on
phenomena that cannot be directly observed
-Instances of radical theory changes in the history of science, such as the rejection of
phlogiston and the reclassification of Pluto
Conceptual Shift and Imagination - correct answer--The development of scientific theories
often involves a conceptual shift or imaginative leap
-Darwin's theory of evolution and Einstein's theory of relativity, for example, originated from
unique perspectives and rethinking existing observations
-The initial idea is a spark of insight that leads to a new way of thinking about known aspects
of the world
Concerns about Laws in Science - correct answer--Discussion of laws has decreased in
science, particularly in psychology
-A decline in references to laws suggests potential challenges for the nomological
conception
-The pattern conception may face similar difficulties due to a diminishing emphasis on broad
patterns in scientific research
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