‘Love is a restless emotion, driving growth and change.’
In the light of this view, consider the ways in which writers explore the power and effects of love.
Webster and Milton explore love in various ways; exploring a positive view through the resilience and
power shown by the Duchess and Antonio, Adam and Eve, but also how love leads to obsession and
desperation through the lens of the antagonists Satan and Ferdinand. Although a more nuanced take of
love leading to the destruction of Adam and Eve, Duchess and Antonio could be explored - that their
choices for love are selfish and affect their lives negatively - this interpretation comes from a contemporary
audience however, as at the time both writers arguably aimed to encourage audiences to root for their love
while criticising the antagonists destructive love. In both views, love is shown to be powerful, going against
the will of society and/ or God, as well as being an emotion to drive someone to extremes such as
deception and murder.
Considering the time at which Webster wrote ‘Duchess of Malfi’, his rather progressive view of pursuing
true love rather than a socially beneficial arranged marriage speaks to his view of the power of love, valuing
it above the expected norms of the time. While it could be argued the Duchess and Antonio's tragic end
could be discouraging this behaviour, almost acting as a warning to the audience at the time, it also could
be viewed as representative of the ‘restlessness of love’. That even though it was dangerous for the couple,
both parties acknowledged this and decided to continue with the marriage regardless, that their love was so
true and powerful they were unable to deny its growth. The first thing Antonio comments on about the
Duchess is her ‘discourse, it is so full of rapture’ which, unlike classic conventions of being ‘seen not heard’
as a woman, he instead transcends simple physical attraction or a gain in social standing as reasons for
why he’s so drawn to her. Instead, Webster promotes the idea that Antonio loves the Duchess for her true
self, her wit and personality and respects her as a person rather than an object. When they do admit their
feeling to each other, they are so overcome with their love they decide to marry immediately - “per verba de
presenti”. In every way the couple is unconventional with the Duchess being the higher social class to
Antonio, her proposal to him and their unorthodox marriage all point to their restless love, that it is so
powerful they must disrupt the social order, that it’s not a question of ‘if’ they should even marry, but ‘how’.
Painter argues that the Duchess’ rush to marry portrays her as a “lusty widow” and focuses solely on the
sexuality of her relationship with Antonio, however from what we see of the couple, they show nothing but
true and genuine love for each other despite the fact they cannot be public, Antonio saying their marriage is
“heaven” and arranged marriage is “hell”. While a modern audience would be more inclined to support this
couple, contemporary audiences are eased into this disruption of the status quo through Antonio's own
noble status (just less than the Duchess) as well as his classic gentleman-like attitude. Webster aims to
encourage audience support of the relationship and their true love through sacrifice, the Duchess would
rather soil her reputation, known as a “strumpet” than live without Antonio, mirrored by Milton in the way
Adam would rather himself be punished and abandoned by God than live without Eve. This works to
emphasise their love and its power over their lives (and fate).
In a similar manner to the Duchess and Antonio, Adam and Eve both choose each other in a world
attempting to tear them apart. When Eve admits to Adam her sin, despite now viewing her as “deflowered”
he also is “certain in his resolution… to die” and that he couldn’t live with another woman God could create,
because the love he feels for his soulmate is so powerful. It could even be argued the love between them is
more powerful than their love for God, as although Eve was tricked, Adam ate the fruit knowing full well his
sin and what it would mean for him. Ultimately, there is no greater sacrifice Adam could enact to
demonstrate the depths of his feelings for Eve, its restless nature causing him to abandon his creator in
favour of his lover. Their love also allows them to survive despite Eve’s suggestion of suicide when faced
with punishment, that because they have each other they will be able to persevere. Milton was a staunch
Presbyterian and believed in divorce, so it could be argued his decision to keep Adam and Eve together
even after receiving punishment was a way to demonstrate their spiritual harmony and the mutual love and
respect felt for each other. Critics disagree on the position of the story regarding gender politics, whether
Milton was misogynistic or not, with critic Koster suggesting that “Milton thought women were less than
men”. While Adam certainly disagrees with Eve at times, blames her for her “female charm”, and calls her a
“bad woman”, Eve equally blames Adam for transgressing with her, and not “commanding” her to stay.
Their discourse means to humanise both characters, Milton demonstrating to audiences that even between
a ‘perfect’ couple, arguments are inevitable and expected. Instead, Milton encourages hope, that through
their love and working together they will be able to achieve redemption and return to Eden one day. In both
relationships, love is the reason for their fall, but it is also through that same love they are able to find
fulfilment and happiness, and ultimately, it's worth the sacrifice.
