Aristotle
Nature of the Prime Mover
The Prime Mover is transcendent, existing outside time and space, and is immaterial. It is
eternal and unchanging, existing by necessity. The Prime Mover has no potentiality or
actuality and does not influence the world in any direct way.
Princess Elisabeth questions how the non-physical Prime Mover can interact with the
physical world. Aquinas uses the Prime Mover to explain the First Cause, suggesting it is
necessary for the existence of everything.
Causation with the Prime Mover
The Prime Mover serves as the efficient cause of the universe and is responsible for the
creation of time. Unlike other entities, it does not have an efficient, material, or formal
cause, remaining unchanged and eternal.
Russell criticizes the focus on causation, while Copleston argues that using our
experience, it is highly likely that a Prime Mover exists. The existence of quantum particles
also raises questions about traditional principles of causation.
Telos (Purpose)
Everything in the universe is attracted to the Prime Mover, which causes movement
through attraction. The telos (purpose) of the universe is directed towards the Prime
Mover, as "nature does not act without a goal."
Aquinas raises the question of why we have a purpose in the first place. Sartre suggests
that we place our own goals, and Russell argues that just because all objects have a telos,
it does not mean the universe does.
Efficient Cause
An efficient cause is an agent that brings something into being or initiates change. There
are two types of efficient causes: artificial and natural. For example, the efficient cause of
a statue is a sculptor.
The world is ever-changing, and everything is in a state of 'motus' (motion) due to the four
causes, moving from potentiality to actuality. Aquinas argues that the Prime Mover leads to
,an infinite chain of causation, while some suggest that things can be their own efficient
cause, such as quantum particles causing themselves.
Material Cause
A material cause refers to what something is made of, such as a statue made of marble.
Everything has a material cause because material is necessary for experience. Our
knowledge is a posteriori, meaning it is gained after our senses, and involves testing
hypotheses through experiments.
Dawkins asserts that everything we see is made of atoms, while Chalmers argues that
materialism cannot explain phenomena like consciousness. Dawkins also mentions the
"God of the gaps," suggesting that science may eventually explain things currently
attributed to divine intervention
Plato
Nature of the Forms
The Forms are understood through the logic of opposites; everything has an opposite, so
there must be an opposite, eternal world. The Forms are non-physical and are understood
through noesis (thought and intellect). While reality is transient, the Forms are immutable
and pure, separated from all other properties.
Evaluation of the Nature of the Forms:
• Aristotle argues that something does not have to be eternal to be pure, using the
example that something does not become more white if it is eternal.
• Popper contends that true reality is ever-changing and there is no need for a world
of Forms.
• Frege supports the idea of the Forms by suggesting that mathematics is unchanging
and therefore must come from a world of Forms.
Our Experience in the World of Forms (WoF)
Plato posits two realms: the intelligible realm and the realm of Forms. Through the
argument from recollection, he suggests our soul used to be in the WoF. Philosophers can
understand the WoF using reason, as demonstrated in the Allegory of the Cave. In our
world, particulars are imperfect copies of the Forms.
,Evaluation of Our Experience in the WoF:
• Dawkins suggests that ideas might be passed genetically.
• We inherently have ideas of a perfect circle, indicating some form of innate
knowledge.
• Lockyer questions how we can gain knowledge from the WoF if it is so different from
our world.
Form of the Good (FoTG) and Morality
The FoTG is superior because it encompasses all good, unlike other forms. We must seek
the FoTG in our actions, and true knowledge is knowledge of the FoTG.
Evaluation of FoTG and Morality:
• The problem of evil challenges the concept of absolute good, questioning if there
was any good in events like the Holocaust.
• Aquinas suggests that if we cannot have good today, we must have it in a future life.
• Sartre argues that different people have different conceptions of what is good.
FoTG and Other Forms
The FoTG illuminates all other Forms, similar to how the sun illuminates reality in the cave.
It is the reason other Forms are good and allows reality to persist. Particulars in our world
are imperfect copies of the Forms.
Evaluation of FoTG Relation to Other Forms:
• Aristotle explains that the FoTG helps us understand why things have a shared
nature and point towards one purpose.
• However, Aristotle also argues that some things, like tallness and consciousness,
are so different that they cannot be unified under one concept.
Sun in Plato's Cave
In Plato's Allegory of the Cave, the sun represents the FoTG. It allows the prisoners to see
the world, just as the FoTG allows us to see reality. This demonstrates how we can use our
intellect to become enlightened.
Evaluation of the Sun:
, • The analogy is simple; we experience everything through the faculty of our mind.
• Sartre suggests that everything has a different telos (purpose).
• Aristotle argues that vastly different concepts like tallness and consciousness
cannot be unified under the same idea.
Analogy of the Divided Line
The Divided Line illustrates different levels of knowledge: images of empirical objects,
empirical objects themselves (opinion), abstract mathematical principles, the Forms, and
the Form of the Good. Knowledge inside the cave pertains to empirical objects, while
knowledge outside the cave involves principles and the Forms. Thus, true knowledge
requires looking beyond empirical experience.
Evaluation of the Divided Line:
• Frege argues that mathematical knowledge is unchanging and not influenced by
reality.
• Locke contends that all knowledge comes from experience.
• Popper asserts that we become more certain with falsification, which happens
through empirical evidence.
Rationalism in Plato's Cave
In the cave, prisoners see shadows on the walls, which are mere images of the senses. If a
philosopher returns to the cave, prisoners would ridicule him, akin to Socrates’
experiences. Noeton refers to the WoF, and Eikasia is the belief that sensory illusions are
real.
Evaluation of Rationalism:
• Kant suggests that ideas such as space, time, and causality come from our
reasoning.
• Aristotle believes we can observe uniformity and that everything has a universal
cause.
• Hume posits that repetition increases our knowledge about something.
