AQA A-Level Psychology 16 Mark Model Essays
Psychopathology
1. Outline and evaluate the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality (16 marks)
The statistical infrequency definition suggests that behaviour which is unusual (i.e. it falls at one of
the extreme ends of a normal distribution curve) should be considered abnormal. For example, a
person with a very low IQ (under 70) would be considered abnormal, and may be diagnosed with
intellectual disability disorder, since most people have an IQ within the range of 70 - 130. On the
other hand, the deviation from social norms definition, as proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman,
suggests that an individual should be considered abnormal if they violate social or ethical codes of
conduct. Rosenhan and Seligman include a number of criteria for this ‘socially unacceptable’
behaviour, such as irrationality, unpredictability, maladaptive behaviour and observer discomfort
(the person’s behaviour may cause distress to someone watching them). In contrast to the statistical
frequency definition, then, someone would only be considered abnormal if their statistically-
infrequent psychological characteristic caused them to behave in a way that deviates from what is
expected in society.
One strength of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality is that it has been used in
clinical diagnosis and therefore has real world application. For example, in diagnosing intellectual
disability disorder or providing participants with a score on Beck’s Depression Inventory. If someone
receives a score that indicates they experience more severe symptoms of depression than is
common then they can be allocated resources to support them. This shows how the statistical
infrequency definition can be used to support diagnostic processes and ensure that help is given to
those who need it most. The deviation from social norms definition also has medical applications in
the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder, both of which
feature behaviours which are characterised as being ‘strange’. Therefore, both definitions are useful
because they can be actioned in order to improve the lives of patients.
However, one limitation of the statistical infrequency definition is that it may involve overlooking
mental health disorders which are more common. Hassett and White argued that, if we were to
apply a statistical approach to diagnosis, people with mild depression would not be considered an
‘infrequent’ minority and would therefore be unable to access help services or be given the
considerations that they need. This renders the statistical infrequency definition less useful because
it may be limited to only severe neuroses, rather than more frequently-occurring mental
abnormalities.
One limitation of the social norms definition is that it risks culture bias, as psychologists may judge
those from other countries, ethnicities and cultures in terms of their own cultural assumptions. For
example, in some cultures, hearing voices is normal - in fact, it is deemed a positive sign of
connecting with one’s ancestors - however this may lead to an unfair diagnosis of mental
abnormality in Western cultures. The idea of what is ‘normal’ changes from country to country, and
even individual to individual, making it difficult to measure abnormality in an objective way. Cultures
also tend to change over time which means that our norms are not fixed even within our own
societies. For example, homosexuality was listed as a disorder in the DSM until 1974, at which point
it was removed on the basis that homosexuality was found to be more common than originally
thought and people in same-sex relationships did not have worse mental health outcomes than
heterosexuals. This shows that there may be little long-lasting worth in defining abnormality in
terms of cultural norms.
, 2. Outline and evaluate the behaviourist explanation for phobias (16 marks)
The two-process model of phobias was proposed by Mowrer and states that we learn phobias
through classical conditional and maintain them through operant conditioning. Phobias are acquired,
first of all, when a neutral stimulus, such as a dog, becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus,
such as biting. Once these two become linked due to a traumatic experience, the neutral stimulus
becomes the conditioned one and elicits feelings of panic, anxiety and fear that are out of
proportion with the real threat posed. The phobia is then maintained due to avoidance behaviour,
which is negatively reinforced since, by avoiding the phobic stimulus, the person avoids the
unpleasant consequence of feeling fear.
One strength of the two-process model is that it has been supported by the research of Ad de Jongh
et al. The researchers found that 71% of people sampled who had a fear of dentistry had
experienced a traumatic event associated with going to the dentist, while only 21% of the control
group had had a similar negative experience. Watson and Rayner’s case study of Little Albert
similarly demonstrates that phobias can be classically conditioned in humans: 9 month-old Little
Albert didn’t show any aversion to rats and white fluffy objects until he came to associate these
things with the unpleasant sound of a large metal bar being struck behind his head. This suggests
there is weight to the two-process model’s claim that phobias are learned behaviours.
However, there is an alternative explanation - biological preparedness - which suggests that phobias
are innate. This may be better able to explain phobias that occur without a triggering event. For
example, Davey et al. found that only 7% of spider phobics recalled having a traumatic experience
with a spider in the past. While Mowrer’s two process model is unable to account for cases such as
this, Seligman’s theory of biological preparedness explains why we are more prone to developing
phobias of things that would have represented a danger to our ancestors in the past e.g. snakes,
spiders, the dark, even the sea. Therefore, an evolutionary explanation for phobias may be more
appropriate than a behavioural one.
A final criticism of the two-process model is that it is only a partial explanation for phobias. It cannot
explain, for example, the cognitive element of phobias, since it is more geared towards
understanding the behavioural patterns behind them. We know that phobias are not just an
avoidance response, but also have a significant cognitive component e.g. holding irrational beliefs.
Therefore, the two-process model is incomplete because it does not offer adequate explanation for
phobic cognitions.
3. Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression (16 marks)
The cognitive approach to treating depression can be split into two parts: Beck’s Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT). Both aim to
identify the faulty thought processes that a depressed person holds, and then correct these through
guided therapeutic techniques. CBT helps clients to recognise automatic negative patterns of
thinking that they might have in relation to themselves, the future and the world (the cognitive
triad). The therapist and client work to set goals, or ‘experiments’, to help test the validity of these
beliefs, known as ‘client as scientist’. This might involve setting the client homework, for example
recording the results of a behavioural experiment in a structured way that they can reference later.
The aim is to show the client that their irrational beliefs are unfounded through evidence-based
practices. The therapist may also encourage behavioural activation, as many depressed people tend
to withdraw into themselves and stop doing the things that used to make them happy, such as
meeting friends or going out for a meal. The therapist encourages them to do these things again,
which helps to boost the client’s mood and reintegrate them back into their social circle. The
